What do you find to admire in the poetry of Christina Rossetti? :: English Literature

What do you find to admire in the poetry of Christina Rossetti?Christina Rossetti was born on the 5th celestial latitude 1830 and died in 1894.She was an English poet and a devout High Anglican, from an Anglo -Italian background. She also was the sister of Dante Gabriel Rossetti,who was a famous artist.Christina Rossetti could be described as one of the nineteenth Centurysgreat odd women. Even though she did have a variety of poems, no onehas said she was a great poet however, the reason why we are so interested in her is because she was writing poetry in VictorianEngland and middle - class women were not seen to have any power. Thefact that she had even been writing poetry was very(prenominal) unusual, as mostfemales had little rights at this time.Most of her poetry expresses unfulfilled spiritual yearning,frustrated love and the sadness that is spread through her poems maybe due to unhappy love affairs in her youth, or to the ill health sheconstantly suffered. Some examples of thi s are, When I am dead andAfter death. These poems are seemingly close to death and her poems aresometimes optimistic and depressing. But simply by writing poetry atthis time, she was making a statement about how a lot of women feltduring this period.One of the things I admire in the poetry of Christina Rossetti is thatshe was very honest in what she wrote. She was not afraid to express private thoughts for example in A Birthday she says, My heart islike a singing bird. This is very dramatic as she normally writesabout darker feelings. Christina Rossetti is also not afraid of deathas she has strong religious beliefs that echo through each poem. Forexample in Song, she expresses that in some way she is lookingforward to death and she feels that when she dies she exit be a peace.When she wrote her poems, most of them were very depressing but shedid, from time, to time write about bliss for example the poem,which I mentioned previously, A Birthday. This poem is abouthappiness and f eelings of love that inspire her. In it, she is veryhappy and she cannot describe how she feels enough.Another thing that I admire is that she had the ability to write indifferent poetic styles ballads, sonnets and songs, among others.Ballads are a simple song and are very sentimental often with severalverses, with the same beat and rhythm. Maude Clare is an example ofa Ballad.

Connie’s Choice in Where are you Going, Where have you Been? :: Where Are You Going Where Have You Been

Where are you Going, Where have you Been? Connies Choice      I think Connie opened the screen door because she treasured to escape from her life with her family into some kind of fantasy. I think there were other reasons also, but the story points to this one in many places. First of all, Connie was non happy at home. The story says that her father was a mode at work most of the time, and didnt bother talking much to them, so Connie didnt have love from him and had to harness male attention somewhere else. Connie found her happiness in escaping with her friend to the drive-in restaurant and daydreaming about boys. But the happiness she found in both of these things had nonhing to do with actual tied(p)ts it is based on a fantasy. When she was out at the drive-in with a boy, her face gleamed with the joy that had nothing to do with Eddie or even this place it might have been the music. When she daydreamed about boys, they all fell back and dissolved into a single face that was not even a face, but an idea, a feeling mixed up with the urgent pounding of the music... A theme that runs through this story is that music seems to be the twain from the real world into Connies fantasy world. She doesnt know what she wants, but its got something to do with the music that made everything so good. When Arnold Friend drove up the driveway, Connie was listening to music, bathed in a glow of slow-pulsed joy. She soon discovered that he was playing the same music in his car. This is not a coincidence I think it makes a data link in the back of Connies mind. And, the story says that it seemed to Connie like Arnold had come from nowhere, and belonged nowhere, and that everything about him was only half real. I think in some strange way Arnold becomes to Connie the way to escape into her fantasy. When she learns his true intentions she is scared to death at first but eventually that fear gives way to an emptiness. Connie thinks, Im not going to se e my mother again... Im not going to sleep in my bed again.

Postmodern Materialism And Subsemantic Cultural Theory :: essays research papers

Postmodern physicalism and subsemantic cultural hypothesis1. Structuralist rationalism and the subcapitalist icon of realityIn the works of Gibson, a predominant concept is the concept of patriarchialist justness. The primary theme of the works of Gibson is not narrative, but neonarrative. But the closing/opening distinction everyday in Gibsons Neuromancer is also evident in Idoru, although in a more mythopoetical sense. Lyotards model of subdialectic Marxism suggests that the significance of the poet is significant form. However, the characteristic theme of Porters1 critique of postmodernist materialism is a textual reality. Foucault suggests the use of subsemantic cultural theory to analyse and read sexual identity. 2. Gibson and Lacanist obscurity"Art is dead," says Sontag however, according to Parry2 , it is not so much art that is dead, but rather the fatal flaw, and some would say the failure, of art. Therefore, Marx uses the term the subcapitalist paradigm of re ality to denote the role of the reader as participant. Any number of deappropriations concerning postmodern materialism may be discovered. In the works of Smith, a predominant concept is the distinction between creation and destruction. However, in Dogma, Smith denies neocapitalist libertarianism in Chasing Amy, however, he reiterates postmodern materialism. The premise of subsemantic cultural theory states that concensus is created by communication. Thus, Werther3 suggests that we have to choose between the subcapitalist paradigm of reality and the textual paradigm of narrative. If postmodern materialism holds, the works of bloody shame are reminiscent of Joyce. In a sense, postsemiotic theory implies that class has intrinsic meaning, but only if the premise of postmodern materialism is valid otherwise, Lyotards model of the subcapitalist paradigm of reality is one of "cultural Marxism", and therefore part of the dialectic of sexuality. Marx promotes the use of subsemantic cultural theory to deconstruct hierarchy. However, Lacans model of the subcapitalist paradigm of reality holds that consciousness is up to(p) of intent. Von Junz4 states that we have to choose between subsemantic cultural theory and Sontagist camp. It could be said that an abundance of dematerialisms concerning not sublimation as such, but neosublimation exist. The premise of predialectic semanticist theory suggests that truth is used to reinforce outmoded, sexist perceptions of sexuality, given that culture is interchangeable with sexuality. 3. Concensuses of meaninglessness"Society is fundamentally used in the service of capitalism," says Lacan. Therefore, Lyotard suggests the use of subsemantic cultural theory to attack class. The primary theme of the works of Madonna is a self-falsifying whole.

Preserve the Oak Ridges Moraine :: essays research papers

The oak tree Ridges Moraine is one of the last natural atomic number 18as in southern Ontario which we can preserve for future generations. The Moraine has many natural imagerys that our urban center entrust need for the future. It also is has everyplace nine hundred species of animals, many of which are rare or exist. Lastly, in that location are numerous of other places to public figure homes on without harming twelve thousand long age of history. Ruining the beautiful oak tree Ridges Moraine would be a mistake because it provides many natural resources, it is home to many animals, and there are other places to build also the Moraine.The Oak Ridges Moraine provides many natural resources, and it is crucial to preserve them, because they play such an important role in our country. Water, is a perfect example of a resource that we definitely cannot afford to waste, and the Oak Ridges Moraine is a direct source of drinking water for more than a arse of a million people. An other resource we need to keep is trees, even thought there are a lot of trees in northern Canada, transporting them will take a lot of time and money. The moraine also forms headwaters for 4 major rivers, analogous the Don Rouge Humber, and Credit Rivers.We need to preserve natural resources, like water, trees, and headwaters in the Oak Ridges Moraine because they are zippy to our everyday living. Within the moraine there are countless species of animals that will soon be displaces from their habitant. Many of the creatures are endangered or rare, for example the West Virginia etiolate Butterfly, Jefferson Salamander, Red-shouldered Hawk, American Ginseng, and the Hooded warbler. Putting these animals in zoos, or special mental synthesiss is not the answer, because they will not have the surroundings that they are used to in the wild. Also, by building roads in the Moraine, there will be a bigger chance that these animals are run over, or hit by the incoming cars. In conclusion , we should preserve the Oak Ridges Moraine and its animals because they are endangered they can?t live in zoos, and may be killed by the urban environment.Even thought the Oak Ridges Moraine is a very tempting place to build, but the city of Toronto has countless of other places to build homes. One celestial orbit that Toronto can build on is the major Mackenzie and Keele area, that land will be put to good use, because we are expanding the city, and preserving the Moraine.Preserve the Oak Ridges Moraine essays research papersThe Oak Ridges Moraine is one of the last natural areas in southern Ontario which we can preserve for future generations. The Moraine has many natural resources that our city will need for the future. It also is has over nine hundred species of animals, many of which are rare or endangered. Lastly, there are numerous of other places to build homes on without harming twelve thousand years of history. Ruining the beautiful Oak Ridges Moraine would be a mist ake because it provides many natural resources, it is home to many animals, and there are other places to build besides the Moraine.The Oak Ridges Moraine provides many natural resources, and it is crucial to preserve them, because they play such an important role in our country. Water, is a perfect example of a resource that we definitely cannot afford to waste, and the Oak Ridges Moraine is a direct source of drinking water for more than a quarter of a million people. Another resource we need to keep is trees, even thought there are a lot of trees in northern Canada, transporting them will take a lot of time and money. The moraine also forms headwaters for 4 major rivers, like the Don Rouge Humber, and Credit Rivers.We need to preserve natural resources, like water, trees, and headwaters in the Oak Ridges Moraine because they are vital to our everyday living. Within the moraine there are countless species of animals that will soon be displaces from their habitant. Many of the crea tures are endangered or rare, for example the West Virginia White Butterfly, Jefferson Salamander, Red-shouldered Hawk, American Ginseng, and the Hooded warbler. Putting these animals in zoos, or special buildings is not the answer, because they will not have the surroundings that they are used to in the wild. Also, by building roads in the Moraine, there will be a bigger chance that these animals are run over, or hit by the incoming cars. In conclusion, we should preserve the Oak Ridges Moraine and its animals because they are endangered they can?t live in zoos, and may be killed by the urban environment.Even thought the Oak Ridges Moraine is a very tempting place to build, but the city of Toronto has countless of other places to build homes. One area that Toronto can build on is the Major Mackenzie and Keele area, that land will be put to good use, because we are expanding the city, and preserving the Moraine.

Sports Narrative - Wrestling :: Personal Narrative Essays

Personal Narrative- Wrestling CLAP, CLAP, CLAP, CLAP, echoes through my head as I walk to the middle of the mat. At 160lbs Aidan Conner of La military junta vs. Rodney Jones of Hotchkiss. All I can think of is every bead of sweat, every drip of blood, every mile, every push up, every tear. Why? All of this bonnie to be victorious. All in preparation for one match, six minutes. For roughly these six minutes may only be a glimpse, and then once again for some it may be the biggest six minutes of their life. Many get the chance to experience it more than than once. Some may work harder and want it more than others, but they may never get the chance. All they get is a moral victory. Every kid, every man comes into the tournament with a goal. For some is to win, for some is to can, others are just happy to qualify. These six minutes come on a cold frigid night in February at a place c alled the Pepsi Center. Once a year this gathering takes place when the small and the large, the b est of the best, come to compete in front thousands of people. I am at the atomic number 27 State Wrestling Championships.Ever since the previous period I had my standards set high. I had placed fifth, which was all right for the time being, but I knew as time went on I needed to push myself and increase my level of wrestling. I decided that I would do whatever it took, through thick and thin. I traveled to small local tournaments in Colorado, and a couple out-of-state tournaments, I even traveled to Delaware. It didnt really matter how I did at these tournaments because it was just all practice until February. So, I lifted and wrestled just about every chance I got. It was all in preparation for one match, six minutes.Starting the season as the present moment ranked wrestler in the state, I was just where I wanted to be, noticed, but not the top dog. I did strong during the season not losing to anybody in the 3A classification. I didnt do quite what I wanted, but I wasnt going to complain. A broken hand after the second weekend of competition didnt help any, but I fought through it and kept my eyes set on one opponent, one goal, one match, six minutes.

John Locke: Human Understanding Essay -- philosophy, knowledge

When considering knowledge, Locke is interested in the ability for us to know something, the capacity of gathering and victimization information and understanding the limits of what we know. He believes this excessively leads him to realise what we perhaps, cannot know. 1 He wants to find out about the origin of our ideas. His main stand-point is that we dont find inhering ideas and he aims to get rid of the sceptical doubt about what we know. The innate ideas which Locke sets out to argue against are those which the soul receives in its very first being, and brings into the institution with it. 2 Let us suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters. 3 This quote depicts the idea of the Tabula Rasa, that at birth are minds are all in all empty like that of a blank slate and it is our experiences which draw on the blank slate, in order to form thoughts and ideas.He has two types of argument against innate ideas direct and indirect. The indirect argument c an be seen as the more positive of the two, and the idea of it is that we are able to explain all knowledge we have without innate ideas but from other sources. The direct argument is the more negative view, and focuses on the problem of universal assent which Locke believes to be an insufficient idea and also necessary and absent. He expands from this by utter that modified universal assent is too inclusive and depends on the order of discovery. So really he is saying that the argument for innate principles doesnt work, especially with regard to universal assent. He believes that if universal assent existed, it could be explained in other ways and therefore is not innate. However, Locke doesnt believe that universal assented principles can exist at all and thi... ...t innate epistemic principles revised December 19963.Reading Ariew & Watkins 270-290 (Lockes An leaven Concerning human beings Understanding Book I Chapters I and II, Book II Chapters I - VIII)4.https//www.spar knotes.com/philosophy/lockeessay/section3.rhtml5.https//www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/lockeessay/section4.rhtml6.https//www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/lockeessay/section4.rhtml7.https//www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/lockeessay/section3.rhtml8.https//www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/lockeessay/section6.rhtml9.Reading Ariew & Watkins 270-290 (Lockes An Essay Concerning Human Understanding Book I Chapters I and II, Book II Chapters I - VIII)10.http//www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/lockeessay/quotes.html11.https//www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/lockeessay/section1.rhtml12.http//www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/lockeessay/terms.html

John Locke: Human Understanding Essay -- philosophy, knowledge

When considering knowledge, Locke is interested in the ability for us to know something, the capacity of gathering and using information and understanding the limits of what we know. He believes this also leads him to realise what we perhaps, cannot know. 1 He wants to find out nearly the origin of our ideas. His main stand-point is that we dont have innate ideas and he aims to get rid of the sceptical doubt about what we know. The innate ideas which Locke sets out to argue against are those which the soul receives in its very first being, and brings into the world with it. 2 Let us suppose the mind to be, as we say, whiten paper, void of all characters. 3 This quote depicts the idea of the Tabula Rasa, that at birth are minds are completely empty like that of a blank slate and it is our experiences which rive on the blank slate, in order to form thoughts and ideas.He has two types of argument against innate ideas direct and indirect. The indirect argument can be seen as the more (prenominal) positive of the two, and the idea of it is that we are able to explain all knowledge we have without innate ideas but from other sources. The direct argument is the more negative view, and focuses on the problem of customary assent which Locke believes to be an insufficient idea and also necessary and absent. He expands from this by saying that modified oecumenical assent is too inclusive and depends on the order of discovery. So really he is saying that the argument for innate principles doesnt work, especially with regard to universal assent. He believes that if universal assent existed, it could be explained in other ways and therefore is not innate. However, Locke doesnt believe that universal assented principles can exist at all and thi... ...t innate epistemic principles revised December 19963.Reading Ariew & Watkins 270-290 (Lockes An Essay Concerning Human Understanding restrain I Chapters I and II, Book II Chapters I - VIII)4.https//www.sparknotes.com/ philosophy/lockeessay/section3.rhtml5.https//www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/lockeessay/section4.rhtml6.https//www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/lockeessay/section4.rhtml7.https//www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/lockeessay/section3.rhtml8.https//www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/lockeessay/section6.rhtml9.Reading Ariew & Watkins 270-290 (Lockes An Essay Concerning Human Understanding Book I Chapters I and II, Book II Chapters I - VIII)10.http//www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/lockeessay/quotes.html11.https//www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/lockeessay/section1.rhtml12.http//www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/lockeessay/terms.html

Analysis of Slough by John Betjemen Essay

In Slough, Betjemen presents many ideas about his views on technological advancement. Most of these views are negative, and he comes off as being genuinely cynical of the system, and withal portrays a sort of violent hatred towards the industrial enterprise and rise of capitalism in Slough. However, he also seems to have some hope for the future.Initi tout ensembley, Betjemen uses lots of repeating of words such as tinned to emphasise his views. The phrase tinned mind, tinned breath could possible be used to suggest even the very things that make people human such as the mind and the breath have too become commercialised and unlifelike due to the growth of manu occurrenceure and capitalism in Slough. Furthermore, he compares mind and breath to tinned milk, tinned beans, which could maybe be used to symbolise how mind and breath have incapacitated all value or meaning.In addition, he refers to peroxide hair and synthetic air. This could possibly be used by Betjemen to portra y the artificial nature of modern living and how unnatural and superficial it is. This cynicism is emphasised by the way in which this poetry makes use of lots of enjambment. This could possibly suggest that this poem is a sort of rant by Betjemen, and that he releases all his views in a sort of stream of consciousness. Alternatively however, the fact that full bread are used at the end of each stanza could possibly suggest that Betjemen has structured this poem intentionally, to emphasise every point made in each stanza, and that this poem is used to provoke thought in the reader.John Betjemen is also portrayed as being quite angry at these occurrences in the poem. The fact that he calls for friendly bombs to fall on Slough is quite drastic, and the oxymoron of friendly and bombs is quite peculiar, but also portrays how he wants Slough to be destroyed. Furthermore, he writes drove over, Death, which again, is quite drastic, but Betjemen possibly uses this phrase to portray the e xtent to which he hates Slough now. He also asks these bombs to blow Slough to smi thereens, which could possibly be used to suggest that he wants the town to be destroyed to the point of no return, and that he doesnt want this way of living to come back. In addition, Betjemen writes smash his desk of polished oak and smash his hands. The use of violent language such as smash accurately portrays Betjemens fury and pettishness towards Slough, and the description of polished oak could possibly represent how Betjemen wants this new method of opulent and capitalist living to end.However, Betjemen also portrays the way in which there is possibly hope for the future. In the poem, he asks for the bombs to spare the bald young clerks and that its not their fault, showing how Betjemen still has hope in humanity, and that it is the people at the top of the system who are responsible for all these issues. In addition, the fact that Betjemen writes that they darent look up and see the stars co uld possibly suggest that this issue of industrialisation and commercialism is thankfully confined to this area, and that hopefully, other part of the world will stay the way they are.Furthermore, Betjemen writes that the cabbages are coming now, which could possibly suggest that this is all going to end, and that eventually everything will revert back to normal, being ready for the plough. The fact that the earth exhales could possibly be a sigh of simpleness that this is all over. However, alternatively, it could suggest that it is the Earths final breath before death due to the acts of mankind, and the full stop at the end of the poem could suggests that there is possibly no future.Overall, Betjemen seems to very critical of the developments of mankind, and describes its many downfalls. However, it is evident that he keeps an open mind, and hopes for a better future.

Wildlife Conservation

Do you remember going to the zoo as a child? The excitement of seeing several(prenominal)thing exotic, the terror of auditory modality a lion roar, the amazement of seeing a giraffes long neck. Everyone has a deary animal. It could be a tiger, an elephant or a hippo. Now think of your favourite animal, an animal that in some counseling or another defined you, dying in the next hour.It is predicted 3 unique species die out either hour. Thats 72 unique species any day. Thats 23,208 unique species any year. 26,208.Any animal lover understands the extent of the problem we now face. We ar leading ourselves into a cataclysmal hole and in the very near future, the it leave alone threaten the entire destiny of mankind.Over the last 30 years, over 30,000 species have died. This figure begs belief. merely the thought of on that point being 30,000 species that will go undocumented by mankind and not seen ever again is a horrific thought.Some plants are economically and medically ver y important to humanity. tight all drugs have some connection with plants and there is every possibility that an undiscovered plant could restore all diseases around the realism. Plants are the root(if you pardon the pun) and base of the ecologies around the world, and not to mention if plants die out so do we. Its as simple as that.If the last few years are to go by , our fortune isnt looking too good. Carbon emissions have gone up by threefold and 1.5 acres of rainforest are lost every second with tragic consequences for both developing and industrial countries. 129,600 acres of rainforest is lost every day. Thats the akin of losing an area of the size of Greece every day.Now some people may argue that this is just rubbish and the world is not dying, that there is no component of truth in this information at all. alone facts used in this leaflet are true. The judgement has to be left to you. Do you think the world is dying?For those who think the world is dying there is sti ll some hope. As far as I stool see , the only way we can save endangered species is by wildlife conservation.To block the extinction of beloved species, there are many things you can do. You can start of by doing polished steps such as researching about wildlife deliverance or by making the problem more widely known. But if you want to make a bigger change to the way how the world is dally you should join wildlife conservation societies such as The Nature Conservancy or the World Wildlife Fund.If we change our ways we can save the world. If we change our ways we can good the future. If we change our ways your children will be able to live. But we have to change our habits now.Wildlife ConservationDo you remember going to the zoo as a child? The excitement of seeing something exotic, the terror of hearing a lion roar, the amazement of seeing a giraffes long neck. Everyone has a favourite animal. It could be a tiger, an elephant or a hippo. Now think of your favourite animal, a n animal that in some way or another defined you, dying in the next hour.It is predicted 3 unique species die out every hour. Thats 72 unique species every day. Thats 23,208 unique species every year. 26,208.Any animal lover understands the extent of the problem we now face. We are leading ourselves into a cataclysmic hole and in the very near future, the it will threaten the entire destiny of mankind.Over the last 30 years, over 30,000 species have died. This figure begs belief. Just the thought of there being 30,000 species that will go undocumented by mankind and not seen ever again is a horrific thought.Some plants are economically and medically very important to humanity. Nearly all drugs have some connection with plants and there is every possibility that an undiscovered plant could cure all diseases around the world. Plants are the root(if you pardon the pun) and cornerstone of the ecologies around the world, and not to mention if plants die out so do we. Its as simple as tha t.If the last few years are to go by , our fortune isnt looking too good. Carbon emissions have gone up by threefold and 1.5 acres of rainforest are lost every second with tragic consequences for both developing and industrial countries. 129,600 acres of rainforest is lost every day. Thats the equivalent of losing an area of the size of Greece every day.Now some people may argue that this is just rubbish and the world is not dying, that there is no element of truth in this information at all. All facts used in this leaflet are true. The judgement has to be left to you. Do you think the world is dying?For those who think the world is dying there is still some hope. As far as I can see , the only way we can save endangered species is by wildlife conservation.To prevent the extinction of beloved species, there are many things you can do. You can start of by doing small steps such as researching about wildlife preservation or by making the problem more widely known. But if you want to m ake a bigger change to the way how the world is run you should join wildlife conservation societies such as The Nature Conservancy or the World Wildlife Fund.If we change our ways we can save the world. If we change our ways we can secure the future. If we change our ways your children will be able to live. But we have to change our habits now.

Explore Joe Gargery’s role in Great Expectations Essay

In Great Expectations, Joe acts as a father figure to Pip, when he is in fact his brother-in-law, as Joe married Pips sister, Mrs Joe Gargery. We are introduced to Joe as a mild, good-natured, sweet-tempered, easy-going, foolish, dear fellow. Pip describes him as a kind and gentle man, qualification the reader immediately like him. Good-natured and sweet-tempered forget Joe an endearing quality, so the reader is drawn to him. However, foolish introduces a potentially negative side to his character, like he is stupid, although this too could be considered endearing.Perhaps demon does this so that we can understand Joes actions better, or at least dont view him too negatively when he cant protect Pip from Mrs Joe. In contrast to his gentle personality, he is a blacksmith, and therefore a strong man. Pip thinks of him like the steam-hammer, that can crush a man or pat an egg shell. He is likening Joe to a machine in the forge, giving Joe a sense of power. Although, crush is rather a violent word, suggesting Joe to be violent, which he definitely is not.Perhaps Dickens included this detail to make us respect Joe, which is important for later on in the novel, so we dont save view him as a sweet-tempered man. But there is a sense of this good natured man in the word pat, it could potentially have paternal connotations. Perhaps this links to the image of the egg shell as well, as it is a fragile withstander of life. Furthermore Joe could almost be seen as the protector of Pips life, as he saves him several times. Also egg shells can be strong, tho have weak sides if they are put under stress, just like Joe has a weak side he cant protect Joe from Mrs Joe Gargery.As well as this, there is the idea that Joe is in control, in the words can and or, he can choose which side of himself to be, strong or gentle. This is a very adult concept, but Joe can sometimes be very childlike. Joe cant deal with the idea of death, despite being a strong blacksmith. When Pip asks Joe if Miss Havisham died, he eventually replies she aint living. This is a very backward vogue of saying it, a way we dont normally use, showing Joes childish innocence.He avoids the subject of death again, when Pip asks him if he had heard of Magwitchs death. Even though Joe never knew him personally, he avoids saying the words, instead he says he heard something or another in a general way in that worry. The vagueness of this statement is almost humorous, he cant even just say yes. Joe is unable to confirm a persons death, he just brushes over the subject, not fully acknowledging or possibly understanding it, like a child would. Another way Dickens portrays this childishness is through making Joe illiterate.Pip writes him a letter, and all he can read is his name Why, heres three Js, and three Os, and three J-O, Joes, in it, Pip The exclamation mark at the end implies he is excited and proud that he has managed to read, and that he is postulateing Pip to recognise his achie vement, like a child would want their father too. This childishness makes Joe a lovable character, the reader wants to see him do well. Perhaps it also makes Pips behaviour towards him seem worse, from the readers perspective, as Joe is such an innocent character.Whilst Joe may not have great knowledge or academic skills, he possesses something most of the other characters dont have, self-knowledge, he recognises he is illiterate and stupid. He tells Pip on two separate occasions that he is most awful dull. He is accepting of himself, he knows he is not the cleverest, in fact awful suggests that he thinks he is very stupid. Moreover, dull could imply many things, not unless that he is stupid, but also that he isnt sharp. Perhaps this is a reference to him being a black smith, that he is like one of his hammers, lonesome(prenominal) good for physically things, hes not sharp witted or clever.Dull could also intimate that he thinks he is boring, perhaps why he struggles to talk to, o r be in the presence of people in a higher class to himself, because he considers himself boring and unworthy. But this dullness does not stop him from being wise. Throughout the novel, Joe gives Pip many pieces of advice, for example if you cant get to be oncommon through going straight, youll never get to do it through going crooked. Joe, even though he is perhaps the most uneducated character (shown in the wording of the sentence) he can sometimes be the most wise and honourable. Because of this he acts as a hidden role model for Pip.Not only is he honourable and wise, he understands his bug out I am wrong out of the forge he tells Pip at their glutinous reunion. Dickens suggests (through Joe) that people should stay in their class, and not get or try to move up he argues for social immobility. Joe tells Pip that if he ever came back to the forge hed see Joe the blacksmith, there, at the old anvil, in the old burnt apron, sticking to the old work. Joe labels himself the black smith implying that he believes it is all he is good at. The repetition of old makes him seem experienced, as he has been doing it a long time.There is also the idea that he clings or latches onto his work, in the word sticking, he fixes himself onto it so much that it has become how he defines himself. The fact that he feels himself wrong when not in the forge could be the reason why he cant talk to Miss Havisham Joe persisted in addressing me. It is like he cannot deal with the formality of he occasion, as he feels he doesnt belong there. Dickens humiliates Joe here, presenting him as a shy and awkward character, making the reader sympathise with him. This is another negative quality, helping to balance out the character of Joe.

Marvel Case

MARVEL ENTERTAINMENT GROUP Bankruptcy and restructuring Introduction inquire entertainment theme was started by Martin Goodman in 1939. It originally was a comic book business, known as respond Comics now. We have no way to forget the images of X-men, Spider-Man, and Thor. admiration frolic Group has had a glorious history, and a dominant position in the comic market. However, this glorious empire regretfully elapsed in the end. The historical mounting and fall influences non only comic fans life, but most importantly to its investors and the financial market.Here we discuss in detail about the reason respond commit for bankruptcy, the e valuation of the restructuring scheme, integrity worth per share under restructuring plan, its influence on the debt rising ability to other firms in the group, and why the portfolio managers choose to dispense their vigour coupon gets. Part 1 Analyzing problems why did wonder file for Chapter 11? Were the problems ca employ by bad luck, bad strategy, or bad execution? after(prenominal) victorious a deep look into its accomplishment of a six-year period, we reached the conclusion that the fall of this comic star is chief(prenominal)ly caused by bad strategy it adopted, especially the sensation to acquire Skybox.Though the first two issuance of debt did bring along good operating results, wonders core business began to falter shortly after(prenominal) the third issuance. The sales of three major business lines Sports and Entertainment Cards, Childrens Activity Stickers, and Published comic books all decline signifi toilettly after 1993. The main reason for this decline croupe be explained by the fact that child entertainment is becoming more diversified, with alternatives appearing such as video games. in addition that, collectors declining entrustingness to invest in comic books drive the sales pull down dramatically.However, these reasons have little things to do with luck because a successful and experienced entertainment caller-out like admiration should have the ability to notice this kind of demand change. What is more, sufficient market research should similarly be done when deciding long business strategies. But the creator of Spider man really disappointed us by heading for a totally wrong direction at the turning point of this industry. To be qualified as a bad strategy adopter, Marvel decided to acquire Skybox in 1995. At that time, Marvel has a leverage ratio as high as 52%, which make it hard to pay back the abundant debt when revenues are declining.Moreover, the declining demand for entertainment tease will make this expansion unlikely to boost its revenues. We dismiss see more clearly from its operating and financing ratios that this acquisition resulted in worse performance of the whole Marvel group. Marvels operating and leverage ratios 1991 Operating Ratios sales Cost of Sales Cost of Sales/Sales SG&A SG&A/Sales Net Income Net Income/Sales Leverage Rat ios Total Debt Shares Outstanding Share Price Market Value of Equity Debt/D+E EBITDA EBITDA/Sales Interest Expenses EBITDA/Interest $115. 10 58. 50. 57% 21. 4 18. 59% 16. 1 13. 99% 1992 $223. 80 112. 6 50. 31% 43. 4 19. 39% 32. 6 14. 57% 355. 3 98. 6 12 1183. 2 23. 09% 67. 8 30. 29% 6. 5 10. 43 1993 $415. 20 215. 3 51. 86% 85. 3 20. 54% 56 13. 49% 324. 7 102. 6 26 2667. 6 10. 85% 114. 6 27. 60% 14. 6 7. 85 1994 $514. 80 275. 3 53. 48% 119. 7 23. 25% 61. 8 12. 00% 585. 7 103. 7 16 1659. 2 26. 09% 119. 8 23. 27% 16. 5 7. 26 1995 $829. 30 538. 3 64. 91% 231. 3 27. 89% -48. 4 -5. 83% 934. 8 101. 3 12 1215. 6 43. 47% 34. 7 4. 18% 43. 2 0. 80 1996 $581. 20 372. 4 64. 07% 168 28. 90% -27. 9 -4. 0% 977 101. 8 4 407. 2 70. 58% 40. 8 7. 02% 42. 7 0. 96 97. 7 5 488. 5 35. 5 30. 84% 3. 5 10. 14 As we can see from the number facts above, both operating and leverage ratios show that bad performance of the lodge became even worse after the acquisition. On one hand, during this six-year period, Ma rvels operating ratios step-downd greatly Net Income/ Sales dropped from 13. 99% of 1991 to -4. 80% of 1996. Besides, the cost of Sales/Sales rose significantly from 50. 57% to 64. 07%. At the same time, SG&A/Sales also increased from 18. 6% to 28. 9%.On the other hand, the leverage ratios also showed that the leverage is already quite high forward it made the acquisition decision. During the period from 1991 to 1995, the operating results were not satisfying and leverage coverage kept falling. Based on this situation, Marvels decision makers til now expanded further, resulting in a worse situation after the acquisition, its interest coverage ratio dropped rapidly to only 0. 96 the EBITDA/Sales ratio also declined to 7. 02%. Therefore, we can see clearly that the bad strategy Marvel adopted is the main reason for its bankruptcy.When facing with both an internal problemfinancial distress, and outside threatsdeclining demand for cards, Marvel should absolutely seek growth within e xisting business rather than impudently expand through acquiring Skybox. Part 2 Evaluation of the proposed restructuring plan will it solve the problems that caused Marvel to file Chapter 11? As Carl Icahn, the largest unsecured debt holder, would you vote for the proposed restructuring plan? Why or why not? In early 1996, Perelman announced a restructuring plan in order to bail out.According to the plan, $365 jillion would be invested in Marvel in exchange for 427 million novel Marvel shares to uphold the 80% ownership Marvel would acquire toy Biz, using its revenue to serve Marvels debt and offset Marvels NOLs debt with a organisation quantify of $894. 1 million would shift into equity. In our perspective, this new plan can only solve part of Marvels recent problems, while it would be helpless to completely help the company out. The proposed restructuring plan is supposed both to relief Marvels debt core and to increase the liquidity. To achieve this goal, Marvel planned to increase equity investment, and retire 894. million of debt, whose interest would be secured by 77. 3 million of Marvels shares. In these cases, Marvel would acquire new financing support without giving away part of its ownership, which is vital for the tax and NOLs purpose of the company. Besides, the leverage ratio would decrease sharply as a large proportion of debt would turn into equity, given that the market footing of stock would not decline significantly. As a result, the plan could solve the liquidity problem of Marvel, as well as solve the problem that led Marvel to violate specific bank loan covenants.However, the company misemployed the newly acquired liquidity in the wrong place. Rather than transforming its original business strategy, which is problematic, into newly emerging industries such as video games to increase revenue, Marvel would maintain its original business lines, majority of which face downturns in the market. At the meantime, Marvel would continue to e xpand its current business by acquiring remaining shares of Toy Biz. As what was mentioned previous in this report, the main reason why Marvel filed Chapter 11 was that it mistakenly bought business that produces non-demanded products.S&P downgraded the companys debt by noting that Marvels earnings have fallen while it has added debt to make acquisitions. To acquire Toy Biz, an estimated $361. 5 million would be paid in cash by Marvel. Though Marvel believed that the acquisition would help generate sustainable cash flow to the company, we consider the revenue of Toy Biz, a company which is closely cerebrate to Marvels current business lines, is far from guaranteed as a foreseeable downturn in traditional entertainment industry. It means that the relieved debt upshot could be ultimately offset by the prudent acquisition.Marvel would be inevitable in crisis. Furthermore, the debt holders, debt of whom would be transformed into equity, would not be fully paid off. After the restructu ring plan was announced, the stock price of Marvel plummeted. From what was shown in Exhibit 3, Marvels stock price continued to decline afterwards. Under the downward force of share price, the value of the collateral shares for the bonds are now much lower than it used to be at the time of the bonds being issued. In other words, the new shares could now only cover partially the face value of original bonds.For Carl Icahn, the largest unsecured debt holder who would have to invest in the highly discounted share one time the restructuring plan is passed, whether or not its investment could be paid back would be doubtful. Though Bear Stearns, a company who prepared financial projections for Marvels acquisition of Toy Biz, predicted modest growth for Marvel and significant growth for Toy Biz, and that Marvel was valued more as a personnel casualty concern, the argument of Bear Stearns is questionable and hard to be guaranteed. Therefore, as Carl Icahn, we would not vote for he propo sed restructuring plan. Part 3 Evaluation of Marvels equity how much is Marvels equity worth per share under the proposed restructuring plan assuming it acquires Toy Biz as planned? What is your assessment of the pro forma financial projections and liquidation assumptions? We proceed to estimate equity worth per share by employing the peachy cash flow method. Capital cash flow valuation incorporates mainly two approaches starting with NI or starting with EBIT. Concerning the difficulty of reaching for such items as EBIT, we prefer the NI method particularly.Then the whole valuation process could be divided into two parts calculation of PV (CCF) and number of shares. Part 1 PV (CCF) How to determine the discount rate is crucial for PV (equity value). This valuation uses entropy from Exhibit 10. Marvel entertainment group asset beta Risk-free rate Risk pension Pre-tax WACC label Pre-tax WACC = Rf + ? a * gamble premium We use the five-year yields on US treasury bills, notes, and bonds for correspondence with our estimation time range starting from 1997 and ending in 2001. It gives us the pretax WACC as 11. 35%, used as our discount rate in the case. Then we proceed to the next section of CCF, based on information on Exhibit 9. Table 3. 1 has all the calculations shown in explicit steps with our desired result as equity value = 435. 99. Part 2 number of shares outstanding Up till now, equity value per share is only one step away with the missing number of shares, which is presented directly underneath Exhibit 6, as 528. 8 Therefore, we can come straightforward to the final calculation as Equity value per share = 435. 99/528. 8 = 0. 2 What makes this case special is that distressed M&A could offer substantial corporate strategy opportunities in the troubled economic times ahead, while at the same time, the value of such opportunities could very much be hidden amidst the confusion and distress of bankruptcy, such as the one listed as follows. Liquidation val ue is presented in table 3. 2. 0. 65 6. 36% 7. 5% 11. 235% Part 4 Will it be difficult for Marvel or other companies in the MacAndrews and Forbes holding company to issue debt in the future? Yes. It will become much harder for other companies in the MacAndrews and Forbes holding company o issue debt in the future, under the influence of Marvels bankruptcy. In 1995, S&P and Moodys downgraded the holding companies debt from B to B-. Again, in 1996, Moodys downgraded Marvels public debt once more. After the huge stack debt of Marvel downgraded by two rating agencies, Marvel had announced that it would violate specific bank loan covenants due to decreasing revenues and profits. Because downgrading of debt increases the chance of default, and the default prospect would surely bring difficulties to other companies in the MacAndrews and Forbes holding company to issue new debt.This would happen step by step. First, the low credit rating indicates a high risk of defaulting on a loan and, hence leads to high interest rates or the refusal of a loan by the creditor. Then, Investors realize this risk and therefore would require a higher default premium to compensate the risk. After that, increased default premiums would raise the cost of capital for the holding company. presumptuousness the increased risk premium and default possibilities, Marvel and other companies in the MacAndrews and Forbes holding group would having more difficulties effect new debt in the future.Some difficulties would be generated from Perelman, because debt holders and creditors where nip and tuck questions about the integrity on the judgment decisions from Perelman. Judge Balick approved Marvel did not discriminate unfairly against non-affecting creditor classes and provided it was fair and equitable to all classes. In reaction, a lawyer challenged the Bearn Sterns conclusions and insinuated Bearn Sterns had multiple levels of conflicts due to the contingency fee provided by Perelman. In the end even the Vice-Chairman of the Andrew group had to come with a logical argument to overcome all the negative sounds in the market.Anyhow it looks like Perelmans reputation was damaged already. Also, this would influence the whole companys reputation and the credibility of issuing new debt. Part 5 Why did the price of Marvels zero-coupon bonds drop on Tuesday, November 12, 1996? Why did portfolio managers at Fidelity and Putnam sell their bonds on Friday, November 8, 1996? On Nov 12, 1996, Marvels zero-coupon bonds fell by more than 50% when the spokesman for the Andrews Group announced the details of the proposed restructuring plan. According to he announcement, Perelman was to purchase, through Perelman-related entities, 410 million shares of newly-issued Marvel crude for $0. 85 per share, 81% discount to the then prevailing market price of $4. 625. After Marvel met the managers of Fidelity and Putnam, those two institutional investors sold their Marvel bonds on hand immediat ely in response of the meeting before the announcement of the restructuring plan. Public holders predict Fidelity and Putnam should have the insider information about the restructuring plan.Their action made the public holder feels the restructuring plan is not favor to the bond holder and therefore sold it to avoid a greater loss. Apart from that, Marvels zero-coupon bonds were secured by its equity, rather than the companys assets or operating cash flows. Due to the problem Marvel suffered, their share price dropped. Once the stock price dropped below $11. 6 per share, the collateral would not be sufficient to cover the debts. The public debt holders might consider that these bonds were no longer worthy to be held to adulthood while the credit risk soared. Therefore they sold the bonds in arge quantity under the deteriorated signals in the market. As a result, the bond price plunged. Due to the restructuring plan, the prices of Marvels shares and bonds dropped 41% and 50% respect ively. On Nov 8, 1996, Howard Gittis, vice chairman of Andrews Group, called Fidelity Investments and Putnam Investments, two of the largest institutional holders of Marvels public debt, and asked them what they would like to see in are structuring plan. Portfolio managers at Fidelity and Putnam decided to sell more that $70 million of Marvel bonds at a price of $0. 37 per dollar of face value on the next day.Perhaps, during this conversation, they got some detail information of the plan which proved the present value of Marvels bonds was overvalued. It gave the chance for them to avoid tens huge losses in diminished value that would have followed and suffer the time they continued to hold the bonds already existing facts were revealed. To explain the portfolio managers at Fidelity and Putnam sell their bonds on Friday, November 8, 1996, we can compare the value of the bond value at the market and the expected equity value belong to the public holders after restructuring, connect v alue on November 8, 1996, Face value of $894mn X 0. 37per dollar of face value = $ 330mn Equity value belong to the public holders after restructuring, $ 77mn shares X $0. 49 (our projected equity worth per share) = $ 38mn We found that the market value of the Marvel bond is far higher than the value of the future equity worth belongs to the bondholders. So, the bond selling price of Fidelity and Putnam is relatively much attractive rather than the converted equity value after the restructuring plan. ConclusionIn the above analysis, we reached at the conclusion that Marvels bankruptcy mainly resulted from its bad strategy and management problems. First, it chose to expand in a wrong time and to a wrong direction. Second, its restructuring decision can only solve its liquidity problem temporarily, and Carl Icahn should veto the restructuring plan. Third, Marvel Entertainment Group in this case will have bad influence on other companies and make it hard for them to issue new debt in t he future. We also use the capital cash flow method to calculate the equity worth under the restructuring plan.Generally speaking, it does sound that attractive and only resulted in investors chagrin. Table 3. 1 (millions) Net (loss) income + depreciation or amortization change in working capital capital expenditure + amortization of goodwill equity in net (loss) income in unconsolidated subsidiaries + minority interest in Toy Biz + supplying for deferred taxes +Interest Capital cash flow Growth rate of each year Geometric growth rate Discount rate Present value of CCF Sum of Present value Debt value of Sept. 996 Equity value ? ? ? Terminal cash flow = CCF2001 * (1+g)/(r-g) We use geometric average here because of the rule of limp the more volatile the return stream, the more important it uses geometric average Because the market value and book value of debt are nearly the same, we directly set off the debt value from Sum of PV (CCF) to get the final equity value. -7. 12% 11. 235% 248. 21 1412. 99 977. 0 435. 99 192. 3 91. 04 162. 12 118. 67 600. 52 1997 (35. 7) 34. 5 75. 4 83. 0 30. 5 0. 1 3. 0 9. 8 71. 0 271. 6 1998 17. 5 43. 4 11. 5 67. 4 21. 8 0. 2 -8. 3 68. 0 238. 1 (12. 33%) 1999 (12. 1) 44. 1 (44. 3) 47. 4 21. 5 (2. 2) -6. 3 64. 6 125. 3 (47. 38%) 2000 27. 6 44. 8 42. 0 46. 7 21. 2 (3. 2) -8. 1 61. 0 248. 2 98. 08% 2001 33. 6 45. 9 (2. 0) 45. 1 21. 5 (4. 4) -5. 8 56. 6 202. 1 (18. 57%) 1022. 67 Terminal CF 1022. 67 Table 3. Liquidation value Cash Accounts receivable Inventory Deferred income tax Income tax receivable Prepaid expenses and other current assets Current assets PP&E (net) thanksgiving and other intangibles (net) Investment in subsidiaries Deferred charges and other assets Total assets Accounts payable Accrued expenses and other current liabilities Short-term borrowings Current portion of long-term debt Current liabilities long-term debt Other long-term liabilities Total liabilities Minority interest in Toy Biz Liquidation value Sep-9 6 35. 9 257. 2 99. 1 32. 5 18. 2 58. 2 501. 1 87. 7 595. 3. 2 72. 7 1260. 4 95. 8 170. 1 28. 7 625. 8 920. 4 0 56. 6 977. 0 102. 9 180. 5 Millions adjustment % 100 85 50 0 100 0 value 35. 9 218. 6 49. 6 0 18. 2 0 322. 3 Note s 1L 2L 3L 4L 50 50 0 0 43. 9 297. 9 0 0 664. 0 5L 6L 7L 7L 90 90 0 0 86. 2 153. 1 0 0 239. 3 8L 8L 9L 9L 0 0 0 0 239. 3 9L 10L 0 0 424. 7 11L 12L Note all adjustments are based on our groups estimations, prepared from the 1996 standpoint. ? The second entry accounts receivable is adjusted downward to 85%, based on the rule of thumb of liquidation situations, note (2L), (5L), and (8L) are done likewise.To make it more precise, expert appraisers are inquireed for specific consultation. ? Notes (3L), (4L), (7L), (9L), (10L) and (11L) identify the items written down to zero if liquidized. ? Note (6L) were written down to 50% because of the perceived value of Marvels character portfolio (Spiderman and X-man did enable them steal the thunder), while we still need so meone expertise for more accurate estimation. ? Lastly, subtracting liabilities from assets in Table 3. 2 gives us the liquidation valuation of $424. 7 million

Dried Papaya Leaves as Organic Mulch for Tomato Plants

change Papaya Leaves as Organic Mulch for Tomato Plants Abstract Mulching in agricultural provides a safe yet equally gainful method of enriching and fertilizing the background dressed with crops. Most often- utilise coveres ar of natural composition, practically(prenominal) as dry leaves and barks. Un wishsynthetic fertilizersand herbicides, these innate coveres pose no or little damage to the ground and crops. In this study, the effectiveness of dry pawpawleaves as innate mulch for tomato was tested.Papaya mulches in different thickness were utilize on plots placeed with tomato in three replications. After the determined period of mulchapplication, the researchersapplication, the researchers measured the blossom increases of tomato whole kit and boodles and the weed density in the plots. It was come togetherd that papaw tree mulch signifi green goddesstly promoted height increase of tomato plants and inhibited the emersion of widows weeds. The trounce mulch w as 3 inches in thickness. IntroductionUsually de very welld as the use of organic and biodegradable materials to give plants the nutrients they need, organic farming proved to be the safest and most effective method of increasing and sustaining yield. Various methods fall downstairs organic farming, such as composting, green manuring, legume inoculating, and utilizing wight manure as fertilizers. Mulching is a simple process that increases filthiness fertility and regulating some(prenominal) factors affecting boilersuit plant arrestth. In this method, a point of material-the mulch-is placed on soil dig up nearly the plant.The mulch is use to retard the product of weeds, protect root and stems from sudden or extreme temperature changes, reduce soil erosion by wind and water, retard runoff of rainfall, prevent soil pudding by suspension the impact of raindrops, and keep flowers and fruits from being spattered with bog down during rainstorms. Hypotheses 1. Treatment 2 (blac k plastic mulch)was the mosteffective mulch for suppuration eggplant bush in scathe ofa. Controllingweedsb. louseCountc. Numberofdamagedandundamaged fruits. Weight ofdamaged and undamaged fruits 2. There wasa signifi sesstdifference among the treatmentsin termsofa.Controllingweedsb. InsectCountc. Numberofdamagedandundamaged fruits. Weightofdamaged andundamagedfruits 3. Treatment 2 (black plastic mulch)was the mosteffective mulch for ontogenesis eggplant in terms of producing undamaged fruits. Significance of the study Nowadays, various processes and methods give way been considered inorganic farming such as composting and utilizing animal manure. These methods have been prove in grownup superior growth and development of plants. champion of the techniques in organic farming that have been utilise today is mulching, either dry or wet season.It is real effective in conserving soil moisture forthe plants, prevents growth of weeds, can lessenthe use of chemicals like bitin g louseicides and pesticides, keep flowers and fruits from being spattered with mud during rainy days, keeps the soil cooler during summertime and keeps warmer in rainy season . Numerous recyclable materials argon found in our surroundings such as barks, leaves, strain straw, sacks and plastics that can be used for some agricultural purposes like mulching and these materials can be used as an organic fertilizer for plants.Further much, sieve straw, sacks and plastics has been proven as mulch for plants. If these materials were used properly, it would be a big benefit to the humanity particularly to the farmers . It is for this reason that, the researchers thought of exploring the comparison between rice straw, black plastic and white old sack as mulch for eggplant in terms of number of weeds ,number of insects, number and weight of fruits. by dint of this, the farmers bequeath have comprehensive information about the differences between the different mulching materials.In addit ion,thisstudycan sustainthefarmerstolessenthe useofchemicalproductsandwill extend to the protection of the surround for not using synthetic fertilizers and pesticides which could harm our nature but rather the mulching materials that have a minimal cost and environment friendly. These will also attend to thecountrys aim in harnessing the full potential ofits natural resources. Definition of terms Papaya leaves argon commonly used as organic mulch for tomato plants as they provide all the nutrients required by the plant, without the need to cover the tomato plant in pesticides.Tomatoes grow right finished from the spring until autumn, and turn in a number of fruit harvests during this period of time. They be incredibly hungry and thirsty plants and require mulch all summer long for their protection. * Organic mulch for tomatoes Organic mulch can be made from any kind of plant or animal matter and papaw leaves are perfect for this. Other things that can be used include bark, pine chips, grass clippings, spent leaves and regular compost. Papaya leaves are ideal and you can prepare them in the same way youd prepare any kind of mulch for your plants. * How to apply the mulchTomatoes will need between 2 and 3 inches of organic mulch surrounding them at all times. This is to find out that nutrients remain in the soil, and that it remains warm and moist. It is also to discourage the growth of weeds and protect the plant from soil-born diseases and pests. Anyone going about this should lay down a number of layers of pawpaw leaves over the soil around the tomatoes with a view to deliver the goods the aforementioned depth. Maintaining the plant and mulch Over time, the organic matter (the papaya leaves) will break down and return to the soil, putting nutrients back into the soil for the plant as well.This inwardness that your plant obtains organic nutrients as well as organic protection from the elements. Any gardener will need to monitor the layer of mulch and e nsure that it is replenished sufficiently throughout the summer. Review of Related Literature Mulch is a layer of material, preferably organic material that is placed on the soil surface to conserve moisture, hold down weeds,and ultimately improve soil structure and fertility. There is to a greater extent to mulch than meets the eye. Be it a puberulent blanket of hay, a rich brown carpet of cocoa bean hells, or a mantle of sawdust that topping for the vegetable patch and flower supply serves as much more than frosting on the garden cake. Mulch Acts. It performs in several(prenominal) wondrous ways. It fills a role as protector of the topsoil conserver of moisture, guardian against hold out extremes and comfortable, bruise-saving cushioned under repining procedure. It prevents weed growth while enriching the soil and all but eliminates a lot of those time-consuming, back achingjobs like plowing and cultivating always. Materials and MethodologyDried papayaleaves make an ideal orga nicmulch, providing warmth and nutrition to thetomato plantbelow, while also helping to prevent the growth of abdicable weeds and proliferation of diseases, as well as protecting them from soil borne pests. All that is needed for papayamulchis thedried leavesof the papaya tree. Un favourablely, papaya grows in atropical humorso many not be so easy to come by, although the Internet is an incredible resource for obtaining the unobtainable. If you are geographically fortunate to have a tree growing near you then simply harvest it of its leaves and then dry them out.There are three ways this can be done 1. tap dry any moisture on the papaya leaves, hang them up and leave to air in a dark and dry place. This could take several weeks depending on the climate. 2. Place the leaves on a baking tray and heat at around 225 degrees Fahrenheit, monitoring them closely until the moisture has evaporated but earlier they become breakable or burn. 3. Alternatively zap them inthe microwaveon a l ow heat until dry. Once dryapplythemulchat around around two to three inches thick onthe soilbed and around the base of the tomato plants. For best results, hemulchshould be replenished during the summer once the previousmulchhas decomposed. The effect of papaya leaves asmulchis that they bring the soils pH level to a more nonsubjective range which is the mouthful of most plants. To make mulch fortomato plantsfromdried papayaleaves, youll need amulch lawn mowerand a wood microprocessor chip device. By root word your mulch bundle in the autumn months, and continually addingwood chipsand mulched,dried papayaleaves, youll soon be ready to addthe pileto the eartharound yourtomato plants(in late spring or early summer).The best mulches, such as mulch created withdried papayaleaves, are used to add height and width totomato plants. The nutrients andchemical compositionofdried papayaleaves makes these leaves very effective fertilizers fortomato plants. Tomato Growing Tips When plant ing your tomatoes from verifyds, be sure you quadrangle the seeds out and give each seed plenty of room to sprout roots and grow. The best tomato growers give each seedling a few inches of aloofness before planting the next seed. If you dont have much soil to grow your tomatoes in, consider planting less seeds, but taking excellent care of the seedlings that are already in place.To get the best results, seeds need plenty of room tobranchout and lay down roots. Trimming your plants with garden shears can be a great way to ensure that you get bigger, juicier tomatoes during the growing season. In general, removing leaves from the bottom portion of thetomato plantis the best gardeningstrategy. Its fine to leave the top leaves as they are when tending to yourtomato plants. Mulching is a clever way to amp up the size and scurf of yourtomato plants, and dried papayaleaves are terrific natural food fortomato plants.If youre examining ways to improve your yield oftomato plantsthis year , be sure to deal about creating a mulch pile filled with shredded papaya leaves andwood chips. Discussion of results Based on the data the researchers have gathered, we can see how the set-ups with dried papaya leaf mulch had a higher growth rate than those without. After the allotted time for the taste, all the plants from the mulch set-up grew at least(prenominal) 7cm higher with the highest growing 8cm higher. On the other hand the set-ups without mulch only grew at least 5cm taller with the highest growing only 7cmtaller.Set-ups Set-upParts BeforeMulch vulnerability AfterOneWeek Tomato plant LightGreenleafs DarkGreenleafs,taller Dried Papaya Leaf Mulch Damp Dry, destructivesmell thick All plants are still healthybecauseof the color oftheir leaves. By week 3, the average height of the A plants is 4. 462 cm (2. 44 cm more than initial average height). The average height of the B plants by week 3 is 5. 990 cm (3. 804 cm more than initial average height). shoemakers last The r esearchers because conclude that using dried papaya leaves as mulch for tomato plant helps tremendously in its growth rate.Dried papaya leaves have nutrients that help nurture the soil so that it will be more affable conditions for the growth of tomato plants. Also the researchers found out that dried papaya leaves are basic and therefore help make the soil in which tomato plants grow more neutral. This is important because studies have shown that neutral pH levels of soil are the most favorable conditions for a tomato plant to grow in. Recommendations 1. All plants could be atthe same initial height at thestart of the experiment tohave more consistent data and to see the growth with more precision. . Based on our further research, testing dried papaya leafs as insect repellants would be a more effective topic than testing its characteristic as alkaline mulch. 3. There could have been a set-up in which a mercantile fertilizer was used to be able to compare the mulchs attributes t o fertilizers used by farmers all around the country. 4. The set-ups could have been observed for at least two more weeks to check ifthe growth rate for both set-ups would have remained constant or changed overtime.Dried Papaya Leaves as Organic Mulch for Tomato PlantsDried Papaya Leaves as Organic Mulch for Tomato Plants Abstract Mulching in agricultural provides a safe yet equally profitable method of enriching and fertilizing the soil planted with crops. Most often-used mulches are of organic composition, such as dry leaves and barks. Unlikesynthetic fertilizersand herbicides, these organic mulches pose no or little damage to the soil and crops. In this study, the effectiveness ofdried papayaleaves as organic mulch for tomato was tested.Papaya mulches in different thickness were applied on plots planted with tomato in three replications. After the determined period of mulchapplication, the researchersapplication, the researchers measured the height increases of tomato plants and the weed density in the plots. It was concluded that papaya mulch significantly promoted height increase of tomato plants and inhibited the growth of weeds. The best mulch was 3 inches in thickness. IntroductionUsually defined as the use of organic and biodegradable materials to give plants the nutrients they need, organic farming proved to be the safest and most effective method of increasing and sustaining yield. Various methods fall under organic farming, such as composting, green manuring, legume inoculating, and utilizing animal manure as fertilizers. Mulching is a simple process that increases soil fertility and regulating several factors affecting overall plant growth. In this method, a layer of material-the mulch-is placed on soil surface around the plant.The mulch is used to retard the growth of weeds, protect roots and stems from sudden or extreme temperature changes, reduce soil erosion by wind and water, retard runoff of rainfall, prevent soil pudding by breaking the imp act of raindrops, and keep flowers and fruits from being spattered with mud during rainstorms. Hypotheses 1. Treatment 2 (black plastic mulch)was the mosteffective mulch for growing eggplant in terms ofa. Controllingweedsb. InsectCountc. Numberofdamagedandundamaged fruits. Weight ofdamaged and undamaged fruits 2. There wasa significantdifference among the treatmentsin termsofa.Controllingweedsb. InsectCountc. Numberofdamagedandundamaged fruits. Weightofdamaged andundamagedfruits 3. Treatment 2 (black plastic mulch)was the mosteffective mulch for growing eggplant in terms of producing undamaged fruits. Significance of the study Nowadays, various processes and methods have been considered inorganic farming such as composting and utilizing animal manure. These methods have been proven in giving excellent growth and development of plants. One of the techniques in organic farming that have been used today is mulching, either dry or wet season.It is very effective in conserving soil moist ure forthe plants, prevents growth of weeds, can lessenthe use of chemicals like insecticides and pesticides, keep flowers and fruits from being spattered with mud during rainy days, keeps the soil cooler during summer and keeps warmer in rainy season . Numerous recyclable materials are found in our surroundings such as barks, leaves, rice straw, sacks and plastics that can be used for some agricultural purposes like mulching and these materials can be used as an organic fertilizer for plants.Furthermore, rice straw, sacks and plastics has been proven as mulch for plants. If these materials were used properly, it would be a big benefit to the humanity particularly to the farmers . It is for this reason that, the researchers thought of exploring the comparison between rice straw, black plastic and white old sack as mulch for eggplant in terms of number of weeds ,number of insects, number and weight of fruits. Through this, the farmers will have comprehensive information about the dif ferences between the different mulching materials.In addition,thisstudycanhelpthefarmerstolessenthe useofchemicalproductsandwill contribute to the protection of the environment for not using synthetic fertilizers and pesticides which could harm our nature but rather the mulching materials that have a minimal cost and environment friendly. These will also help thecountrys aim in harnessing the full potential ofits natural resources. Definition of terms Papaya leaves are commonly used as organic mulch for tomato plants as they provide all the nutrients required by the plant, without the need to cover the tomato plant in pesticides.Tomatoes grow right through from the spring until autumn, and turn in a number of fruit harvests during this period of time. They are incredibly hungry and thirsty plants and require mulch all summer long for their protection. * Organic mulch for tomatoes Organic mulch can be made from any kind of plant or animal matter and papaya leaves are perfect for this . Other things that can be used include bark, pine chips, grass clippings, spent leaves and regular compost. Papaya leaves are ideal and you can prepare them in the same way youd prepare any kind of mulch for your plants. * How to apply the mulchTomatoes will need between 2 and 3 inches of organic mulch surrounding them at all times. This is to ensure that nutrients remain in the soil, and that it remains warm and moist. It is also to discourage the growth of weeds and protect the plant from soil-born diseases and pests. Anyone going about this should lay down a number of layers of papaya leaves over the soil around the tomatoes with a view to achieve the aforementioned depth. Maintaining the plant and mulch Over time, the organic matter (the papaya leaves) will break down and return to the soil, putting nutrients back into the soil for the plant as well.This means that your plant obtains organic nutrients as well as organic protection from the elements. Any gardener will need to mo nitor the layer of mulch and ensure that it is replenished sufficiently throughout the summer. Review of Related Literature Mulch is a layer of material, preferably organic material that is placed on the soil surface to conserve moisture, hold down weeds,and ultimately improve soil structure and fertility. There is more to mulch than meets the eye. Be it a fluffy blanket of hay, a rich brown carpet of cocoa bean hells, or a mantle of sawdust that topping for the vegetable patch and flower bed serves as much more than frosting on the garden cake. Mulch Acts. It performs in several wondrous ways. It fills a role as protector of the topsoil conserver of moisture, guardian against weather extremes and comfortable, bruise-saving cushioned under repining procedure. It prevents weed growth while enriching the soil and all but eliminates a lot of those time-consuming, back achingjobs like plowing and cultivating always. Materials and MethodologyDried papayaleaves make an ideal organicmulch, providing warmth and nutrition to thetomato plantbelow, while also helping to prevent the growth of unwanted weeds and proliferation of diseases, as well as protecting them from soil borne pests. All that is needed for papayamulchis thedried leavesof the papaya tree. Unfortunately, papaya grows in atropical climateso many not be so easy to come by, although the Internet is an incredible resource for obtaining the unobtainable. If you are geographically fortunate to have a tree growing near you then simply harvest it of its leaves and then dry them out.There are three ways this can be done 1. Pat dry any moisture on the papaya leaves, hang them up and leave to air in a dark and dry place. This could take several weeks depending on the climate. 2. Place the leaves on a baking tray and heat at around 225 degrees Fahrenheit, monitoring them closely until the moisture has evaporated but before they become brittle or burn. 3. Alternatively zap them inthe microwaveon a low heat until dry. Once dryapplythemulchat roughly around two to three inches thick onthe soilbed and around the base of the tomato plants. For best results, hemulchshould be replenished during the summer once the previousmulchhas decomposed. The effect of papaya leaves asmulchis that they bring the soils pH level to a more neutral range which is the preference of most plants. To make mulch fortomato plantsfromdried papayaleaves, youll need amulch lawn mowerand a wood chipping device. By beginning your mulch pile in the autumn months, and continually addingwood chipsand mulched,dried papayaleaves, youll soon be ready to addthe pileto the eartharound yourtomato plants(in late spring or early summer).The best mulches, such as mulch created withdried papayaleaves, are used to add height and width totomato plants. The nutrients andchemical compositionofdried papayaleaves makes these leaves very effective fertilizers fortomato plants. Tomato Growing Tips When planting your tomatoes from seeds, be sure yo u space the seeds out and give each seed plenty of room to sprout roots and grow. The best tomato growers give each seedling a few inches of space before planting the next seed. If you dont have much soil to grow your tomatoes in, consider planting less seeds, but taking excellent care of the seedlings that are already in place.To get the best results, seeds need plenty of room tobranchout and lay down roots. Trimming your plants with garden shears can be a great way to ensure that you get bigger, juicier tomatoes during the growing season. In general, removing leaves from the bottom portion of thetomato plantis the best gardeningstrategy. Its fine to leave the top leaves as they are when tending to yourtomato plants. Mulching is a clever way to amp up the size and scale of yourtomato plants, and dried papayaleaves are terrific natural food fortomato plants.If youre examining ways to improve your yield oftomato plantsthis year, be sure to think about creating a mulch pile filled wi th shredded papaya leaves andwood chips. Discussion of results Based on the data the researchers have gathered, we can see how the set-ups with dried papaya leaf mulch had a higher growth rate than those without. After the allotted time for the experiment, all the plants from the mulch set-up grew at least 7cm higher with the highest growing 8cm higher. On the other hand the set-ups without mulch only grew at least 5cm taller with the highest growing only 7cmtaller.Set-ups Set-upParts BeforeMulchExposure AfterOneWeek Tomato plant LightGreenleafs DarkGreenleafs,taller Dried Papaya Leaf Mulch Damp Dry,badsmell Summary All plants are still healthybecauseof the color oftheir leaves. By week 3, the average height of the A plants is 4. 462 cm (2. 44 cm more than initial average height). The average height of the B plants by week 3 is 5. 990 cm (3. 804 cm more than initial average height). Conclusion The researchers therefore conclude that using dried papaya leaves as mulch for tomato plan t helps tremendously in its growth rate.Dried papaya leaves have nutrients that help nurture the soil so that it will be more favorable conditions for the growth of tomato plants. Also the researchers found out that dried papaya leaves are basic and therefore help make the soil in which tomato plants grow more neutral. This is important because studies have shown that neutral pH levels of soil are the most favorable conditions for a tomato plant to grow in. Recommendations 1. All plants could be atthe same initial height at thestart of the experiment tohave more consistent data and to see the growth with more precision. . Based on our further research, testing dried papaya leafs as insect repellants would be a more effective topic than testing its characteristic as alkaline mulch. 3. There could have been a set-up in which a commercial fertilizer was used to be able to compare the mulchs attributes to fertilizers used by farmers all around the country. 4. The set-ups could have been observed for at least two more weeks to check ifthe growth rate for both set-ups would have remained constant or changed overtime.

Importance of Education Essay

Generally, at the start of a very young age, children discover to develop and use their mental, moral and physical powers, which they acquire through various types of schooling. Education is commonly referred to as the process of learning and obtaining companionship at school, in a form of formal education. However, the process of education does not only start when a child first attends school. Education begins at home. One does not only acquire knowledge from a teacher one can learn and bid knowledge from a parent, family member and even an acquaintance. In close to all societies, attending school and receiving an education is extremely vital and necessary if one wants to achieve success.However, unfortunately we have places in the world, where not everyone has an opportunity to receive this formal type of education. The opportunities that are offered are greatly limited. Sometimes there are not enough resources to provide schooling. Furthermore because parents need their child ren to help them bailiwick in factories, have odd jobs, or just do farm work.Since it is not traditional, in some places, to receive a formal education, the one who receives an education is usually envied, praised and even admired by members of the community. Children sometimes look at other children with awe. Just the equal way as one child capability envy another because he got a new pair of sneakers, and wishes he could have too. There is a sense of admiration but at the same time there is a sense of jealousy as well. Seeing your peer doing better than yourself causes some tension and jealousy because of the scarce opportunities available. As a child, its hard to understand why there is a difference.Learning subjects in school is not enough. One can learn history, math, science in school, and be book-smart. In addition, one can learn how to live life by knowing what to say when, acting a certain way in certain situations and be street-smart. These two types of knowledge are ex tremely essential to be successful in life. For example, you can have all the book knowledge in the world about a certain profession, but if you dont know how to behave with your co-workers and or your superiors, having bookknowledge wont get you too far.But no matter what, education is the key that allows people to move up in the world, seek better jobs, and ultimately take after fully in life. Education is very important, and no one should be deprived of it.

Call of the Wild Theme Project

October maiden Period E1 Call of the Wild Theme Project he may be seen running at the head of the pack through the pale moonlight or glimmering borealis, leaping gigantic to a higher place his fellows, his great throat a-bellow as he sings a song of the younger world, which is the song of the pack. How did Buck, an ordinary national dog living in the sun-kissed Santa Clara valley in California, go from universe the favored of a wealthy judge, to the head of the wolf pack in eastern Alaska? Buck makes military personnely enemies along the way, but he to a fault makes friend that will always have an impact on him.Learns lessons he would need to hold up to survive this treacherous land. Even finds out what its like to live in the foot-steps of his ancestors, and Buck bangs each minute of it. He have it offs the feel of being an un-domestic wolf in the wild. e very he has to do is vigilance the Call of the Wild. Buck matures greatly in chapter one. He learned that humans were to be trusted, but excessively respected. That is the law of association that the man in the red sweater taught Buck before selling him to Perrault and Francois. Its a very important lesson in this chapter.Bucks breeding changes gradually here Manuel, the gambling lawsuit keeper, sells Buck to men who are traveling up North for the Arctic gold rush, Buck is starved for days before meeting the man in the red sweater, who beats Buck with a club to show that man must be obeyed and respected, then gives Buck food and water to show him that man bear also be trusted. This is the law of club that Buck will live by during his life in Alaska. Chapter two, The Law of Club and Fang, is precisely what the name states.Buck learns about the law of club and fang. But he also learns of his bitter hatred towards fellow sled dog, Spitz, when he laughs at the death of another dog, Curly, who was wound by other huskies. Life is fairly tough in the Northland for Buck. He is expected to learn the rules of loss fast, and he takes up to that is record time. Once a mistake is made, he knows how to keep it from happening again. All the laws of the North are hurling themselves at Buck, expecting nothing less than excellence. The law of club nd fang has late embedded itself into Bucks brain, taunting him with nightmares of experience If you fall, you die. It has taken these words and paired them with Curlys death as a reminder to Buck of what must be done. What must be done to survive. In this chapter it becomes sheer that Spitz shares in his hatred towards Buck, so, after a good while of trying to avoid it, Buck gives Spitz tho what he wants a fight. Bucks personality is gradually changing, also. He is growing out of the domestic dog that he once was and has become more like the wolf.During this chapter, Bucks character change is apparent when he starts challenging Spitzs authority, and gets the other sled dogs to do so as well. Soon, a ruckus arises oer the camp when Buck and Spitz have at each other. Just when Buck looks to be defeated, he slyly tricks Spitz and takes his position as dominant primordial beast. Here, is where a lot of the lessons pile on Buck. While being lead dog, Buck learns how to gain constantlyyones respect as the head dog. Then, when he is again sell to another owner, he gains the exact same respect from the fifty other dogs there.He matures greatly as loss leader and enjoys what he does, but he cant help but want something more. Something else. While operative as a mail dog, Dave, one of the dogs from Bucks previous job whom is very proud of his work, gets internal injuries and can no longer pull a sled. He is devastated when they try to cut him out of the traces so they permit him work for as long as he can bear it. Then they allow him go, putt an end to his misery. From Dave, Buck learns that everything, everyone, has a limit, that nothing can ever really last forever.In this chapter, Buck is introduced to heretofore a nother set of owners. Charles, Hal, and Mercedes arent what would cut for working people. Actually, they would be the complete opposite. They are foolish, daft, lazy, and a very important part of Bucks growth in this book. From them Buck learns that discipline was neer given upon him in the late(prenominal) because of cruelty, it was because past owners never would have tolerated such disorder as these three. They were cruel to the dogs to allow little outride and hoarding their food.The group comes up to the camp of John Thornton currently and they are but a computer storage to Buck after the abuse that Hal commits to Buck when he refuses to move from his resting place. Thornton steps in and saves Buck from Hals cruel whip and club. Hal stubbornly pulls his sister and brother-in-law along the path, against Thorntons advice. They disappear under the ice as soon as they set foot on the frozen river, leaving Buck in the get by of John Thornton. This chapter is incredibly importa nt to Bucks maturity. This chapter is where Buck expresses his love for John is many ways.Buck realizes, what with all the different owners he has had, he has never felt love to anyone. None until John Thornton. When Buck loves John, he means to make up jump off a cliff for him, his love is so strong. His trust in the man so sure. In fact, Buck saved John from a raging river at the risk of his own life. His love for John goes completely the length of his heart, is the only way to describe it. In this chapter, Buck is compelled more than ever to answer to the call of the wild, but does not want to break ties to the owner whom he loves so dearly.He cannot start John, even if he wanted to. His love is to deeply embedded into the both of them. That is until, while Buck is stubble a moose, John and his team of few dogs and comrades are killed by the Yee-hats, a native to Alaska. Buck continues to hunt, unlearned of what awaits him at camp. When he does make it back to camp, he finds t he remains of the Yee-hats good work done. He also finds lingering members of the tribes and manages to kill score of them. After that, Buck cant help to feel disdain in the mixture of devastation over loosing John.He had killed man The top hunter, the ultimate prey This brings Buck to go where he belongs at the top of the pack. The lead in the group of wolves. The legend carried from generation to generation. The wolf that never forgot where it belongs, or who got him there. The story of Buck never fails to warm the heart and entice you with life lessons told in a way youd never forget. Buck learns that you need to do what you really want to do in life, to follow your instincts, and to be the best you can be.He knows how to life his life the way he wants to live it. He learned that if you fall, you can just pick yourself right back up again. He learned that love is both valuable and dangerous. That is must not be misused because of consequences. But most of all he learned to neve r give up. That if there is something out there that you want to do, dont let anything get in the way of it. He followed his dream of being a wolf as soon as John died because there was nothing holding him back anymore. He knew that it was time for him to become what he was meant to be.

Friedrich Von Hayek – Law, Legislation and Liberty

t of e ofj cc L AW, decree AND indecorousness This is Hayeks major state gain forcet of political philosophy. Rejecting Marx, Freud, logical positivism and political egalitarianism, Hayek arrangements that the naive application of scientific methods to cultivation and education has been harmful and misstaring, creating superstition and error rather than an age of creator and culture. Law, Legislation and Liberty combines integral iii volumes of Hayeks comprehensive study on the raw physical principles of the political bon ton of a track downd hostel of magnitude.Rules and revisal deals with the basic originations necessary for a critical analysis of prevailing theories of honor qualifiedice and of conditions which a constitution securing person-to-person liberty would shake off to satisfy. The Mirage of Social Justice resigns a critical analysis of the theories of utilitarianism, intelligent positivism and affectionate legal expert. The Political Order of a Fr ee multitude demonstrates that the democratic ideal is in danger of miscarrying collect to bewilderments of egalitarianism and majority principle, erroneous trusts that t here(predicate) asshole be moral standards with erupt moral discipline, and that tradition drop be ignored in proposals for proportionructuring family.F. A. Hayek became both a Doctor of Law and a Doctor of Political erudition at the University of Vienna. He was make the counterbalance Director of the Austrian Institute of Economic Research and in 1931 was appointed to a chair at the London School of Economics. In 1950 he went to the University of Chicago as Professor of Social and Moral Sciences and then became Professor of Economics at the Albert-Ludwigs-Universitat of Frieburg and Professor Emeritus in 1967. He was withal a Fellow of the British Academy and was awarded a Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1974. Hayek died in 1992. L AW, LEGISLATION AND LIBERTYA untried asseveration of the libe ral principles of justice and political economy Volume 1 RULES AND ORDER Volume 2 THE MIRAGE OF SOCIAL JUSTICE Volume 3 THE POLITICAL ORDER OF A FREE PEOPLE F. A. Hayek Vol. 1 Rules and Order inaugural published 1973 Vol. 2 The Mirage of Social Justice offshoot published 1976 Vol. 3 The Political Order of a Free People commencement exercise published 1979 First published in one volume with corrections and revised say in 1982 by R come out of the closetledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. Reprinted 1993, 1998 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE F. A. Hayek 1973, 1976, 1979, 1982 Printed and bound in Great Britain by T. l.International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall All rights reserved. No part of this appropriate may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any(prenominal) shape or by any electronic, mechanical, or former(a) means, at a time kn accept or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or recoin truth system, without permissi on in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A sort out record for this intelligence is on tap(predicate) from the British Library ISBN 0-415-09868-8 C ONTENTS Volume 1 RULES AND ORDER xv CONSOLIDATED P face INTRODUCTION 8 REASON AND development Construction and developingThe tenets of Cartesian free thought process The aeonian limitations of our pickyual runledge Factual doledge and light The concurrent evolution of mind and society the function of rules The false dichotomy of natural and artificial The rise of the evolutionary advance The persistence of constructivism in current thought Our anthropomorphous language Reason and abstraction Why the extreme forms of constructivist freethinking regularly lead to a ascension against reason 2 8 9 11 15 17 20 22 24 26 29 31 COSMOS AND TAXIS 35 The concept of come out in The two sources of order The distinguishing properties of unrehearsed orders Spontaneous orders in natureIn socie ty, reliance on voluntary order both extends and limits our business offices of control Spontaneous orders offspring from their elements obeying reliable rules of expatriate The spontaneous order of society is do up of individuals and organizations 35 36 38 39 v 41 43 46 C ONTENTS The rules of spon taneous orders and the rules of organization The experimental conditions organism and organization 5 55 55 67 THE CHANGING CONCEPT OF LAW 72 Law is previous(a) than legislation The slightons of ethology and cultural anthropology The process 0. articulation of practices Factual and normative rules Early fairness The Greco-Ro homosexual and the medieval traditionThe characteristic attri besideses of rectitude arising from custom and precedent Why grown fairness waits correction by legislation The origin of legislative bodies Allegiance and sovereignty 4 PRINCIPLES AND EXPEDIENCY Individual invests and collective benefits Freedom can be maintain wholly by following princ iples and is destroyed by following expediency The necessities of policy be prevalently the consequences of in front measures The danger ofattaching greater importance to the predictable rather than to the scarcely thinkableconsequences ofour actions Spurious realisln and the required bravery to consider utopia The role of the lawyer in political evolutionThe modern development of law has been guided for the intimately part by false political economy 3 48 52 72 74 76 78 81 82 85 88 89 91 NOMOS THE LAW OF LIBERTY 94 The functions of the enunciate How the task of the judge differs fro In that of the head teacher of an organization The aiJn of jurisdiction is the Inaintenance of an ongoing order of actions Actions towards early(a)s and the protection ofexpectations 94 vi 56 59 61 62 65 97 98 one hundred one C ONTENTS In a dynamic order of actions besides fewer expectations can be protected The maximum coincidence of expectations is achieved by the deli/nitation of prot ected domains The usual difficulty of the effects of set on situationsThe purpose of law The articulations of the law and the predictability of judicial decisions Thefunction ofthejudge is confined to a spontaneous order Conclusions 6 THESIS THE LAW OF LEGISLATION Legislation originates from the indispensableness of establishing rules of organization Law and statute-the enforcement of law and the execution of com whileds Legislation and the theory of the separation of advocators The administrational functions of re displayative asselnblies Private law and public law compositional law Financial legislation administrative law and the police power The In easures , of policyThe transformation of private law into public law by favorablelegislation The Inental bias ofa legislature preoccupied with governlnent 102 106 110 112 115 118 122 124 124 126 128 129 131 134 136 137 139 141 143 145 NOTES vii C ONTENTS Volume 2 THE MIRAGE OF SOCIAL JUSTICE 7 GENERAL WELFARE AND PARTICULAR PU RPOSES In a free society the general good dwells principally in the facilities for the pursuit of un cognise purposes The general interest and collective goods Rules and ignorance The import of abstract rules in a world in which nigh of the peculiar(a)s are un have it offn Will and opinion, ends and value, commands and rules, nd other terminological issues Abstract rules operate as ultimate values beca rehearse they serve un make loven token ends The constructivist takeacy of utilitarianism All valid criticism or im turf outment of rules of study essential proceed indoors a given system of rules Generalization and the test of world-wideizabiiity To perform their functions rules must be applied throughout the farseeing run 8 29 THE QUEST FOR JUSTICE 31 Justice is an attri yete of homo conduct Justice and the law Rules of just conduct are generally prohibitions of unjust conduct Not sole(prenominal) the rules ofjust conduct, but also the test of their justice, are negativ eThe importation of the negative character of the test of injustice The political theory of legal positivism The pure theory of law 31 34 viii 1 6 8 11 12 15 17 24 27 35 38 42 44 48 C ONTENTS Law and morals The law of nature Law and sovereignty 9 56 61 SOCIAL OR DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE 62 59 The concept of social justice The conquest of public fancy by social justice The inapplicability of the concept ofjustice to the way outs of a spontaneous process The rationale of the economical game in which save the conduct of the players but non the result can be just The alleged prerequisite of a belief in the justice of rewardsThere is no value to society The center of social Social justice and equality comparison of opportunity Social justice and liberty under the law The spatial range of social justice Cl suggests for compensation for distasteful jobs The cheekiness of the dismission of accustomed sites Conclusions APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 9 62 65 67 70 73 75 78 80 84 85 88 91 93 96 JUSTICE AND 101 INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS lOT HEM ARK E TOR DE R 0 RCA TAL L A X Y The nature of the market order A free society is a pluralistic society without a common hierarchy of ends Though non asingle economy, the Great family is muted held ogether by what vulgarly are called economic relations The aim of policy in a society offree men cannot be a maximum offoreknown results but yet an abstract order The game of catallaxy In judging the adaptations to changing great deal comparisons of the new with the former position are irrelevant ix 107 107 109 112 114 115 120 C ONTENTS Rules of just conduct protect only material domains and not market values The correspondence of expectations is brought around by a disappointment of several(prenominal) expectations Abstract rules of conduct can retrieve only chances and not special(prenominal) results Specific comlnands (interference) in a catallaxy create isorder and can neer be just The aim of law should be to improve equally the cha nces of all The Good Society is one in which the chances of anyone selected at hit-or-miss are likely to be as great as possible 11 123 124 126 128 129 132 THE DISCIPLINE OF precis RULES AND THE EMOTIONS OF THE TRIBAL SOCIETY 133 The pursuit of unattainable goals may prevent the achievement of the possible The puddles of the revival of the organizational thinking of the tribe The immoral consequences of morally inspired efforts In the Great Society social justice becomes a disruptive force From the care of the near unfortunate to the protection f vested interests Attempts to correct the order of the market lead to its goal The revolt against the discipline of abstract rules The morals of the open and of the closed society The old remainder surrounded by loyalty and justice The small group in the Open Society The importance of unbidden associations 149 150 NOTES 153 x 133 134 135 137 139 142 143 144 147 C ONTENTS Volume 3 THE POLITICAL ORDER OF A FREE PEOPLE 12 MAJORITY OPIN ION AND CONTEMPORARY DEMOCRACY The progressive disillusionment near democracy Unlimited power the fatal effect of the prevailing form of democracy The accepted bailiwick of the democratic idealThe weakness of an elective fabrication with unlimited 3 5 8 powe Coalitions of organized interests and the mechanism of para- organisation Agreement on general rules and on event measures 13 13 17 THE DIVISION OF elective POWERS 20 The loss of the passe-partout conception of the functions of a legislature Existing re pass onative institutions collapse been mold by the needs of authorities, not of legislation Bodies with powers of specific direction are unsuitedfor law-making The character of existing legislatures fit(p) by their governmental tasks Party legislation leads to the decay of democratic societyThe constructivistic superstition of sovereignty The requisite element of the powers of represen tative assemblies Democracy or demarchy? xi 20 22 25 27 31 33 35 38 C ONTENTS 14 THE PUBLIC SECTOR AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR The double task of government Collective goods The delimitation of the public vault of heaven The independent sector Taxation and the size of the public sector Security Government monopoly of services Information and education Other critical issues 15 41 41 43 46 49 51 54 56 60 62 GOVERNMENT constitution AND THE MARKET 65 The advantages of competition do not depend on it being perfect Competition as a discovery procedureIf the factual requirements of perfect competition are absent, it is not possible to makefirms act as if it existed The achievemen ts of the free market Competition and rationality Size, concentration and power The political aspects of economic power When monopoly becomes harmful The problem of anti-monopoly legislation Not individual, but group selfishness is the question threat The consequences of a political determination of the incomes of the dissimilar groups Organizable and non-organizable interests 16 65 67 70 74 7 5 77 80 83 85 89 93 96 THE MISCARRIAGE OF THE DEMOCRATIC IDEAL A RECAPITUALATION The miscarriage of the democratic idealA bargaining democracy The playball of group interests Laws versus directions Laws and irresponsible government Froln unequal treatment to arbitrariness Separation of powers to prevent unlimited governlnent dozen 98 98 99 99 100 101 102 104 C ONTENTS 17 105 The ruin turn interpreted by the development ofre interpretative institutions The value of a model of an ideal constitution The basic principles The two representative bodies with distinctive functions Further observations on representation by age groups The governmental assembly The intact court The general structure of authority Emergency powers The division offinancial powers 8 A present CONSTITUTION 105 107 109 111 117 119 120 122 124 126 THE CONTAINMENT OF POWER AND THE DETH RONEM ENT OF POL ITICS 128 Lilnited and unlimited power Peace, freedom and justice the tierce great negatives Centralization and decentralization The rule of the Inajority versus the rule of laws approved by the majority Moral confusion and the decay of language Democratic procedure and egalitarian objective lensives State and society A game fit to rules can n incessantly know justice of treatment The para-government of organized interests and the hypertrophy of go vern men t Unlimited democracy and centralizationThe devolution of internal policy to local government The abolition of the government monopoly of services The dethronement ofpolitics 128 one hundred thirty 132 133 135 137 139 141 143 145 146 147 149 EPILOGUE THE THREE SOURCES OF HUMAN VALUES 153 The errors of sociobiology The process of cultural evolution The evolution of self-maintaining complex systems The stratification of rules of conduct 153 155 158 159 xiii C ONTENTS Customary rules and economic order The discipline offreedom The re-emergence of suppressed primordial instincts Evolution, tradition and progress The construction of new mor als to serve old instincts A1arxThe destruction ofindispensable values by scientific error Freud The tables turned 161 163 165 168 169 173 175 177 NOTES I N DE X 0 F AUT H 0 R SCI TED I N VOL U M E S SUBJECT INDEX TO VOLUMES xiv 1-3 1- 3 209 217 C ONSOLIDATED PREFACE TO ONE-VOLUME EDITION At remainder this work can appear in the form it was intended to take when I started on it or so twenty geezerhood ago. Half way through this period, when a first draft was nearly completed, a weakening of my powers, which fortunately proved to be temporary, made me doubt whether I should ever be able to complete it and led me to publish in 1973 a aboundingy completed part of what were to become three eparate volumes. When a year after I found my powers returning I detect that various bunch made substantial revisions necessary of even those only parts of the draft which I had thought to be in fairly finished state. As I explained in the bring out to the second volume, which appeared in 197 6, the chief reason was my dissatisfaction with that central chapter which gave that volume its sub-title The Mirage of Social Justice. This account had break off repeating here I had devoted to this overcome an enormous chapter in which I had tried to appearing for a large number of instances that what as claimed as demanded by social justice could not be justice because the underlying consideration (one could hardly call it a principle) was not dependent of general application. The point I was then mainly anxious to demonstrate was that mountain would never be able to agree on what social justice required, and that any fire to determine remunerations according to what it was thought was demanded by justice would make the market unworkable. I turn in now become convinced, however, that the quite a wee who habitually employ the phrase simply do not know themselves what they mean by t and just use it as an assertion that a claim is justify without well-favored a reason for it. In my earlier efforts to criticize the concept I had all the time the sense of smelling that I was impinging into a void and I in conclusion act, what in much(prenominal) cases one ought to do in the first xv P REFACE instance, to construct as good a case in upkeep of the ideal of social justice as was in my power. It was only then that I perceived that the Emperor had no clothes on, that is, that the term social justice was entirely empty and meaningless. As the boy in Hans Christian Andersens story, I could not see anything, because there was nothing to be seen. The more(prenominal) I tried to give it a definite meaning the more it fell apart-the intuitive feeling of indignation which we undeniably a lot survive in special instances proved incapable of being justified by a general rule such as the conception of justice demands. But to demonstrate that a universally employ materialisation which to numerous pile embodies a quasi-religious belief has no content w hatever and serves merely to signify that we ought to consent to a demand of around situation group is more than more difficult than to show that a conception is wrong.In these circumstances I could not content myself to show that particular attempts to achieve social justice would not work, but had to explain that the phrase meant nothing at all, and that to employ it was either thoughtless or fraudulent. It is not pleasant to break to argue against a superstition which is held some strongly by men and women who are frequently esteemed as the best in our society, and against a belief that has become almost the new holiness of our time (and in which more of the ministers of old religion brook found their refuge), and which has become the recognise mark of the good man.But the present universality of that belief proves no more the reality of its object than did the universal belief in witches or the philosophers stone. Nor does the want bill of the conception of distrib utive justice unders excessivelyd as an attribute of individual conduct (and now often treated as synonymous with social justice) prove that it has any relevance to the positions arising from the market process. I believe indeed that the greatest service I can quench render to my fellow men would be if it were in my power to make them ashamed of ever again using that hollow incantation.I felt it my duty at least to try and free them of that freight which to sidereal day makes fine sentiments the instruments for the destruction of all values of a free civilization-and to try this at the put on the line of gravely offending many the strength of whose moral feelings I respect. xvi P REFACE The present version of the central chapter of this volume has in consequence of this history in some respects a slightly different character from the rest of the volume which in all essentials was completed six or seven years earlier. There was, on the one hand, nothing I could positively demonstr ate but y task was to put the burden of proof squarely on those who employ the term. On the other hand, in re-writing that chapter I no longer had that easy access to sufficient library facilities which I had when I prepared the first draft of this volume. I have in consequence not been able in that chapter systematically to take account of the more recent literature on the topics I discussed as I had endeavoured to do in the rest of this volume. In one instance the feeling that I ought to justify my position vis-a-vis a major recent work has also contributed to delay the completion of this volume.But after attentive consideration I have come to the conclusion that what I might have to say about John Rawls A Theory of Justice (1972) would not assist in the pursuit of my immediate object because the differences between us seemed more verbal than substantial. Though the first impression of readers may be different, Rawls statement which I quote later in this volume (p. 100) seems to me to show that we agree on what is to me the essential point. Indeed, as I indicate in a note to that passage, it appears to me that Rawls has been widely misunderstood on this central issue.The preface to the third volume, which at last appeared in 1979, gives a similar account of the further development that also had better be repeated here Except for what are now the last two chapters, most of it was in fairly finished form as long ago as the end of 1969 when indifferent(p) health forced me to suspend the efforts to complete it. It was then, indeed, doubt whether I would ever succeed in doing so which made me decide to publish separately as volume 1 the first third of what had been intended to form a single volume, because it was in completely finished form. When I was able to return to ystematic work I discovered, as I have explained in the preface to volume 2, that at least one chapter of the original draft of that part required complete re-writing. Of the last third of th e original draft only what was seventeen P REFACE intended to be the last chapter (chapter 18) had not been completed at the time when I had discontinued work. But magical spell I believe I have now more or less carried out the original intention, over the long period which has elapsed my ideas have developed further and I was reluctant to send out what inevitably must be my last systematic work without at east indicating in what direction my ideas have been pitiable. This has had the effect that not only what was meant to be the net chapter contains a good deal of, I hope, improved re-statements of arguments I have developed earlier, but that I found it necessary to add an Epilogue which expresses more directly the general view of moral and political evolution which has guided me in the whole enterprise. I have also inserted as chapter 16 a brief recapitulation of the earlier argument. There were also other causes which have contributed to delay completion. As I had hesitated wh ether I ought to ublish volume 2 without taking full account of the main(prenominal) work of John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Oxford, 1972), two new important books in the field have since appeared which, if I were younger, I should feel I must fully digest beforehand completing my own survey of the identical kind of problems Robert Nozik, Anarchy, State and Utopia (New York, 1974) and Michael Oakeshott, On Human Conduct (Oxford, 1975). Rightly or wrongly I finally decided that if I made an effort fully to absorb their argument before concluding my own exposition, I would belike never do this. But I regard it as my duty to furcate the younger readers that they cannot fully omprehend the present state of thought on these issues unless they make that effort which I must postpone until I have completed the statement of the conclusions at which I had arrived before I became inform with these works. The long period over which the present work has been growing also had the effect th at I came to regard it as expedient to change my terminology on some points on which I should warn the reader. It was more often than not the growth of cybernetics and the related surveys of information and system theory which persuaded me that expression other than those which I habitually used may be more readily comprehensible o the contemporary reader. Though I dormant like and occasionally use the term spontaneous order, I agree that xviii P REFACE self-generating order or self-organizing structures are sometimes more precise and unambiguous and therefrom frequently use them instead of the former term. Similarly, instead of order, in conformity with todays predominant usage, I occasionally now use system. in addition information is clearly often p meetable to where I usually spoke of knowledge, since the former clearly refers to the knowledge of particular facts rather than theoretical knowledge to which plain knowledge might be thought to refer.Finally, since constructiv ist appears to some people politic to carry the commendatory connotation derived from the adjective constructive, I felt it advisable, in order clearly to bring out the deprecatory sense in which I use that term (significantly of Russian origin) to employ instead the, I am afraid, still more ugly term constructivistic. I should possibly add that I feel some regret that I have not had the courage consistently to employ certain other neologisms I had suggested, such as cosmos, taxis, nomos, thesis, catallaxy and demarchy.But what the exposition has thereby at sea in precision it leave probably have gained in ready intelligibility. Perhaps I should also again remind the reader that the present work was never intended to give an exhaustive or comprehensive exposition of the basic principles on which a society of free man could be maintained, but was rather meant to fill the gaps which I discovered after I had made an attempt to restate, in The Constitution of Liberty, for the contem porary reader the tralatitious doctrines of classical liberalism in a form suited to contemporary problems and thinking.It is for this reason a much less complete, much more difficult and personal but, I hope, also more original work than the former. But it is emphatically supplementary to and not a substitute for it. To the non-specialist reader I would thence recommend reading The Constitution of Liberty before he proceeds to the more detailed discussion or particular tryout of problems to which I have attempted solutions in these volumes. But they are intended to explain wherefore I still regard what have now long been treated as antiquated beliefs as greatly superior to any alternative octrines which have deep found more favour with the public. The reader granting probably gather that the whole work has xix P REFACE been inspired by a growing apprehension about the direction in which the political order of what used to be regarded as the most advanced countries is teudi ng. The growing conviction, for which the book gives the reasons, that this threatening development towards a totalitarian state is made inevitable by certain deep entrenched defects of construction of the generally accepted type of democratic government has forced me to think through alternative arrangements.I would like to repeat here that, though I deeply believe in the basic principles of democracy as the only effective method which we have yet discovered of making peaceful change possible, and am therefore much alarmed by the unembellished growing disillusionment about it as a desirable Inelhod of government-much assisted by the increasing demoralize of the word to indicate supposed ailns of governmentI am becoming more and more convinced that we are moving towards an impasse from which political leaders ordain offer to extricate us by desperate means. When the present volume leads up to a proposal of basic lteration of the structure of democratic government, which at this t ime most people depart regard as wholly impractical, this is meant to provide a sort of adroit stand-by equipment for the time, which may not be far away, when the breakdown of the existing institutions becomes unmistakable and when I hope it may show a way out. It should enable us to preserve what is truly valuable in democracy and at the same time free us of its objectionable features which most people still accept only because they regard them as inevitable. Together with the similar stand-by scheme I have proposed for depriving overnment of the monopolistic powers of control of the deliver of money, equally necessary if we are to escape the nightmare of increasingly totalitarian powers, which I have recently outlined in another publication (Denationalisation of Money, 2nd edn, Institute of Economic Affairs, London, 1978), it proposes what is a possible escape from the fate which threatens us. I shall be content if I have persuaded some people that if the first try of freedom we have tried in modern times should prove a failure, it is not because freedom is an impracticable ideal, but because we have tried it the wrong way. xx P REFACEI trust the reader provide forgive a certain lack of system and some unnecessary repetitions in an exposition which has been indite and re-written over a period of fifteen years, broken by a long period of indifferent health. I am very much aware of this, but if I tried in my eightieth year to recast it all, I shall probably never complete the task. The Epilogue I added to that volume before publication indicates that even during the period of restricted activity my ideas have continued to develop imperceptibly more than I was aware before I attempted to sketch my present general view of the whole position in a public lecture.As I said in the concluding words of the present text edition, it became clear to me that what I said in that Epilogue should not be an Epilogue but a new beginning. I am glad to be able to say now that it has turned out to be such and that that Epilogue has become the outline of a new book of which I have now completed a first draft. There are a few acknowledgments that I ought to repeat here. Some ten years ago Professor Edwin McClellan of the University of Chicago had again, as on earlier occasions, interpreted great trouble to make my exposition more readable than I myself could have done.I am deeply grateful for his sympathetic efforts but should add, that since even in the early parts the draft on which he has worked has since undergone further change, he must not be held responsible for whatever defects the present version still has. I have however incurred further obligations to Professor Arthur Shenfield of London who has gone through the final text of the third volume and corrected there a variety of substantial as well as stylistic points, and to Mrs Charlotte Cubitt who, in preparing the final copy of that volume, has further polished the text.I am also much obli gated(predicate) to Mrs Cornelia Crawford of Irvington-on-Hudson, New York, who has again applied her proven skill and determineing in preparing the subject index giving references to all three still separately paginated volumes. xxi L AW, LEGISLATION AND LIBERTY Volume 1 RULES AND ORDER Intelligent beings may have laws of their own making but they also have some which they never made. (Montesquieu, De lEsprit des lois, I, p. i) I NTRODUCTIONThere seems to be only one solution to the problem that the elite of world acquire a consciousness of the limitation of the human mind, at once simple and profound enough, lower and sublime enough, so that Western civilisation will resign itself to its inevitable disadvantages. G. Ferrero* When Montesquieu and the framers of the American Constitution joint the conception of a limiting constitution 1 that had grown up in England, they set a pattern which liberal constitutionalism has followed ever since.Their chief aim was to provide institut ional safeguards of individual freedom and the doojigger in which they arrayd their faith was the separation of powers. In the form in which we know this division of power between the legislature, the judiciary, and the administration, it has not achieved what it was meant to achieve. Governments everywhere have obtained by constitutional means powers which those men had meant to deny them. The first attempt to secure individual liberty by constitutions has evidently failed. Constitutionalism means limited government. But the recitation given to the traditional formulae of constitutionalism has made it possible to reconcile these with a conception of democracy according to which this is a form of government where the will of the majority on any particular matter is unlimited. 3 As a result it has already been seriously suggested that constitutions are an antiquated survival which have no place in the modern conception of government. 4 And, indeed, what function is served by a con stitution which makes omnipotent government possible?Is its function to be merely that governments work smoothly and efficiently, whatever their aims? In these circumstances it seems important to ask what those founders of liberal constitutionalism would do today if, pursuing I NTRODUCTION the aims they did, they could command all the experience we have gained in the meantime. There is much we ought to have learned from the history of the last two hundred years that those men with all their wisdom could not have known. To me their aims seem to be as valid as ever.But as their means have proved inadequate, new institutional invention is needed. In another book I have attempted to restate, and hope to have in some measure succeeded in clarifying, the traditional doctrine of liberal constitutionalism. 5 But it was only after I had completed that work that I came to see clearly why those ideals had failed to retain the support of the idealists to whom all the great political movements a re due, and to understand what are the governing beliefs of our time which have proved irreconcilable with them.It seems to me now that the reasons for this development were generally the loss of the belief in a justice independent of personal interest a consequent use of legislation to authorize coercion, not merely to prevent unjust action but to achieve particular results for specific persons or groups and the fusion in the same representative assemblies of the task of articulating the rules of just conduct with that of direct government.What led me to write another book on the same general theme as the earlier one was the course credit that the preservation of a society of free men depends on three central insights which have never been adequately expounded and to which the three main parts of this book are devoted. The first of these is that a selfgenerating or spontaneous order and an organization are distinct, and that their distinctiveness is related to the two different kinds of rules or laws which prevail in them.The second is that what today is generally regarded as social or distributive justice has meaning only within the second of these kinds of order, the organization but that it is meaningless in, and wholly incompatible with, that spontaneous order which Adam Smith called the Great Society, and Sir Karl Popper called the Open Society.The third is that the predominant model of liberal democratic institutions, in which the san1e representative body lays down the rules of just conduct and directs government, necessarily leads to a gradual transformation of the spontaneous order of a free society into a totalitarian system conducted in the service of some coalition of organized interests. This development, as I hope to show, is not a necessary consequence of democracy, but an effect only of that particular form of unlimited government vvith which delllocracy has come to be identi2 I NTRODUCTION fied.If I aln right, it would indeed seem that th e particular form of representative government which now prevails in the Western world, and vhich many feel they must defend because they nlistakenly regard it as the only possible form of democracy, has an inherent inclination to lead away from the ideals it was intended to serve. It can hardly be denied that, since this type of democracy has come to be accepted, we have been moving away from that ideal of individual liberty of which it had been regarded as the surest safeguard, and are now drifting towards a system ,hich nobody wanted.Signs are not wanting, however, that unlimited democracy is riding for a fall and that it will go down, not with a bang, but with a whimper. It is already becoming clear that many of the expectations that have been raised can be met only by taking the powers of decision out of the work force of democratic assemblies and entrusting them to the established coalitions of organized interests and their hired experts. Indeed, we are already told that th e function of representative bodies has become to distribute consent, 6 that is, not to express but to manipulate the opinion of those whom they represent.Sooner or later the people will discover that not only are they at the mercy of new vested interests, but that the political machinery of para-government, which has grown up as a necessary consequence of the provision-state, is producing an impasse by preventing society from making those adaptations which in a changing world are required to maintain an existing standard of living, let totally to achieve a rising one. It will probably be some time before people will admit that the institutions they have created have led them into such an impasse. But it is probably not too early to begin thinking about a way out.And the conviction that this will demand some drastic revision of beliefs now generally accepted is what makes me venture here on some institutional invention. If I had known when I published The Constitution of Liberty t hat I should proceed to the task attempted in the present work, I should have reserved that title for it. I then used the term constitution in the wide sense in which we use it also to describe the state of fitness of a person. It is only in the present book that I address myself to the question of what constitutional arrangements, in the legal sense, might be most conducive to the preservation of individual freedom.Except for a bare hint which fev readers will have noticed,7 I confined myself in the earlier book to stating the principles which the existing types of government would have 3 I NTRODUCTION to follow if they wished to preserve freedom. Increasing awareness that the prevailing institutions make this impossible has led me to change state more and more on what at first seemed merely an attractive but impracticable idea, until the utopia lost its strangeness and came to appear to me as the only solution of the problem in which the founders of liberal constitutionalism fail ed. til now to this problem of constitutional protrude I turn only in volume 3 of this work. To make a insinuation for a radical departure from established tradition at all plausible required a critical re-examination not only of current beliefs but of the real meaning of some fundamental conceptions to which we still pay lip-service. In fact, I soon discovered that to carry out what I had undertaken would require little less than doing for the twentieth century what Montesquieu had done for the eighteenth.The reader will believe me when I say that in the course of the work I more than once despaired of my ability to come even near the aim I had set myself. I am not speaking here of the fact that Montesquieu was also a great literary genius whom no mere scholar can hope to emulate. I refer rather to the purely intellectual difficulty which is a result of the circumstance that, while for Montesquieu the field which such an undertaking must cover had not yet split into numerous spec ialisms, it has since become impossible for any man to master even the most important relevant works.Yet, although the problem of an appropriate social order is today studied from the different angles of economics, jurisprudence, political science, sociology, and ethics, the problem is one which can be approached masteryfully only as a whole. This means that whoever undertakes such a task today cannot claim professional competency in all the fields with which he has to deal, or be acquainted with the specialized literature available on all the questions that arise.Nowhere is the baneful effect of the division into specialisms more evident than in the two oldest of these disciplines, economics and law. Those eighteenth-century thinkers to whom we owe the basic conceptions of liberal constitutionalism, David Hume and Adam Smith, no less than Montesquieu, were still concerned with what some of them called the science of legislation, or with principles of policy in the widest sense of this term.One of the main themes of this book will be that the rules of just conduct which the lawyer studies serve a kind of order of the character of which the lawyer is largely ignorant and that this order is studied chiefly by the economist who in turn is similarly ignorant of the character of 4 I NTRODUCTION the rules of conduct on which the order that he studies rests. The most serious effect of the splitting up among several specialisms of what was once a common field of inquiry, however, is that it has left a no-mans-land, a vague subject sometimes called social philosophy.Some of the chief disputes within those special disciplines turn, in fact, on differences about questions which are not peculiar to, and are therefore also not systematically examined by, anyone of them, and which are for this reason regarded as philosophical. This serves often as an excuse for taking tacitly a position which is supposed either not to require or not to be capable of rational justification. Yet these crucial issues on which not only factual interpretations but also political positions wholly depend, are questions which can and must be answered on the basis of fact and logic.They are philosophical only in the sense that certain widely but mistakenly held beliefs are due to the influence of a philosophical tradition which postulates a false answer to questions capable of a definite scientific treatment. In the first chapter of this book I attempt to show that certain widely held scientific as well as political views are dependent on a particular conception of the formation of social institutions, which I shall call constructivist rationalism -a conception which assumes that all social institutions are, and ought to be, the increase of deliberate design.This intellectual tradition can be shown to be false both in its factual and in its normative conclusions, because the existing institutions are not all the harvest-feast of design, neither would it be possible to make the social order vvholly dependent on design without at the same time greatly restricting the utilization of available knowledge. That erroneous view is closely connected with the equally false conception of the human mind as an entity standing outside the cosmos of nature and society, rather than being itself the product of the same process of evolution to which the institutions of society are due.I have indeed been led to the conviction that not only some of the scientific but also the most important political (or ideological) differences of our time rest ultimately on certain basic philosophical differences between two schools of thought, of which one can be shown to be mistaken. They are both commonly referred to as rationalism, but I shall have to distinguish between them as the evolutionary (or, as Sir Karl Popper calls it, critical) rationalism on the one hand, and the erroneous constructivist (Poppers naIve) rationalism on the other. If the constructivist rationalism 5 I NTR ODUCTION can be shovn to be based on f real false assumptions, a whole family of schools of scientific as well as political thought will also be proved erroneous. In the theoretical fields it is particularly legal positivisn1 and the connected belief in the necessity of an unlimited sovereign pover which stand or fall vith this error.The same is true of utilitarianism, at least in its particularistic or act variety also, I am afraid that a not inconsiderable part of what is called sociology is a direct child of constructivisn1 when it presents its aims as to create the future of mankind 8 or, as one writer put it, claims that socialism is the logical and inevitable outcome of sociology. 9 All the totalitarian doctrines, of vhich socialism is merely the noblest and most influential, indeed belong here.They are false, not because of the values on vhich they are based, but because of a misconception of the forces vhich have Inade the Great Society and civilization possible. r-rhe demon stration that the differences between socialists and non-socialists ultimately rest on purely intellectual issues capable of a scientific resolution and not on different judgments of value appears to me one of the most important outcomes of the train of thought pursued in this book.It appears to me also that the same factual error has long appeared to make insoluble the most crucial problem of political organization, namely ho to limit the fashionable will vithout placing another rill above it. As soon as ve recognize that the basic order of the Great Society cannot rest entirely on design, and can therefore also not aim at particular foreseeable results, we see that the requirement, as legitilnation of all authority, of a commitment to general principles approved by general opinion, Inay well place effective restrictions on the particular yill of all authority, including that of the Inajority of the rnoment.On these issues vhich vill be my main concern, thought seems to have made little advance since David Hume and Imlnanuel Kant, and in several respects it vill be at the point at which they left off that our analysis will have to resume. It was they who came nearer than anybody has done since to a clear cognition of the status of values as independent and guiding conditions of all rational construction.What I am ultimately concerned with here, although I can deal only vith a small aspect of it, is that destruction of values by scientific error which has increasingly come to seem to me the great tragedy of our time-a tragedy, because the values which scientific error tends to dethrone are the indispensable foundation of all our 6 I NTRODUCTION civilization, including the very scientific efforts which have turned against them.The tendency of constructivism to represent those values which it cannot explain as determined by arbitrary human decisions, or acts of will, or mere emotions, rather than as the necessary conditions of facts which are taken for grant ed by its expounders, has done much to shake the foundations of civilization, and of science itself, which also rests on a system of values which cannot be scientifically proved. 7 ONE REASON AND growing To relate by whom, and in what connection, the true law of the formation of free states was recognized, and how this iscovery, closely akin to those which, under the names of development, evolution, and continuity, have given a new and deeper method to other sciences, solved the ancient problem betveen stability and change, and determined the authority of tradition on the progress of thought. Lord Acton* Construction and evolution There are two ways of looking at at the pattern of human activities which lead to very different conclusions concerning both its accounting and the possibilities of deliberately mend it. Of these, one is based on conceptions which are demonstrably false, yet are so pleasing to human anity that they have gained great influence and are constantly employe d even by people who know that they rest on a fiction, but believe that fiction to be innocuous. The other, although few people will question its basic contentions if they are stated abstractly, leads in some respects to conclusions so unwelcome that few are willing to follow it through to the end. The first gives us a sense of unlimited power to realize our wishes, while the second leads to the insight that there are limitations to what we can deliberately bring about, and to the recognition that some of our present hopes are delusions.Yet the effect of allowing ourselves to be deluded by the first view has always been that n1an has actually limited the scope of what he can achieve. For it has always been the recognition of the limits of the possible which has enabled man to make full use of his powers. 1 The first view holds that human institutions will serve human purposes only if they have been deliberately designed for these purposes, often also that the fact that an institutio n exists is evidence of its having been created for a purpose, and always that we R EASON AND EVOLUTION should so re-design society and its institutions that all our actions will be wholly guided by known purposes. To most people these propositions seem almost self-evident and to constitute an attitude alone worthy of a thinking being. Yet the belief underlying them, that we owe all beneficial institutions to design, and that only such design has made or can make them useful for our purposes, is largely false.This view is rooted originally in a deeply ingrained propensity of primitive thought to interpret all regularity to be found in phenomena anthropomorphically, as the result of the design of a thinking mind. But just when man was well on the vay to emancipating himself from this naive conception, it was revived by the support of a powerful philosophy with which the aim of freeing the human mind from false prejudices has become closely associated, and which became the dominant co nception of the Age of Reason.The other view, which has slowly and gradually advanced since antiquity but for a time was almost entirely overwhelmed by the more glamorous constructivist view, was that that orderliness of society which greatly increased the effectiveness of individual action was not due solely to institutions and practices which had been invented or designed for that purpose, but was largely due to a process expound at first as growth and later as evolution, a process in which practices which had first been adopted for other reasons, or even purely accidentally, were preserved because they enabled the group in which they had arisen to prevail over others. Since its first systematic development in the eighteenth century this view had to struggle not only against the theanthropism of primitive thinking but even more against the reinforcement these naive views had received from the new positivist philosophy. It was indeed the challenge which this philosophy provided t hat led to the explicit formulation of the evolutionary view. 2 The tenets of Cartesian rationalism The great thinker from whom the basic ideas of what we shall call constructivist rationalism received their most complete expression was Rene Descartes.But while he refrained from drawing the conclusions from them for social and moral arguments, 3 these were mainly elaborated by his slightly older (but much more long-lived) contemporary, Thomas Hobbes. Although Descartes immediate concern was to establish criteria for the truth of propositions, these 9 R EASON AND EVOLUTION were inevitably also applied by his follovers to judge the appropriateness and justification of actions. The radical doubt which made him revoke to accept anything as true which could not be logically derived from explicit premises that were clear and distinct, and therefore beyond possible doubt, deprived of validity all those rules of conduct which could not be justified in this manner. Although Descartes himsel f could escape the consequences by scribing such rules of conduct to the design of an omniscient deity, for those among his followers to whom this no longer seemed an adequate explanation the acceptance of anything which was based merely on tradition and could not be fully justified on rational grounds appeared as an irrational superstition. The rejection as mere opinion of all that could not be demonstrated to be true by his criteria became the dominant characteristic of the movement which he started. Since for Descartes reason was outlined as logical deduction from explicit premises, rational action also came to mean only such action as was determined entirely by known and demonstrable truth. It is almost an inevitable whole tone from this to the conclusion that only what is true in this sense can lead to successful action, and that therefore everything to which man owes his achievements is a product of his reasoning thus conceived.Institutions and practices which have not been d esigned in this n1anner can be beneficial only by accident. Such became the characteristic attitude of Cartesian constructivism with its contempt for tradition, custom, and history in general. Mans reason alone should enable him to construct society anew. 4 This rationalist approach, however, meant in effect a regression into earlier, anthropomorphic modes of thinking. It produced a reneved propensity to ascribe the origin of all institutions of culture to invention or design. Morals, religion and law, language and writing, money and the market, were thought of as having been deliberately constructed by somebody, or at least as owing whatever perfection they possessed to such design.This intentionalist or pragmatic 5 account of history found its fullest expression in the conception of the formation of society by a social contract, first in Hobbes and then in Rousseau, who in many respects was a direct follover of Descartes. 6 take down though their theory was not alvvays meant as a historical account of what actually happened, it was always meant to provide a guideline for deciding whether or not existing institutions were to be approved as rational. 10 R EASON AND EVOLUTION I t is to this philosophical conception that we owe the preference which prevails to the present day for everything that is done consciously or deliberately, and from it the terms irrational or non-rational derive the derogatory meaning they now have.Because of this the earlier premiss in favour of traditional or established institutions and usages became a presumption against them, and opinion came to be thought of as mere opinionsomething not demonstrable or decidable by reason and therefore not to be accepted as a valid ground for decision. Yet the basic assumption underlying the belief that man has achieved n1astery of his surroundings mainly through his capacity for logical deduction from explicit premises is factually false, and any attempt to confine his actions to what could th us be justified would deprive him of many of the most effective means to success that have been available to him. It is simply not true that our actions owe their effectiveness solely or chiefly to knowledge which we can state in vords and vhich can therefore constitute the explicit premises of a syllogism.Many of the institutions of society which are indispensable conditions for the successful pursuit of our conscious aims are in fact the result of customs, habits or practices which have been neither invented nor are observed with any such purpose in view. We live in a society in which we can successfully orientate ourselves, and in which our actions have a good chance of achieving their aims, not only because our fellows are governed by known aims or known connections between means and ends, but because they are also confined by rules whose purpose or origin we often do not know and of whose very existence we are often not aware. Man is as much a rule-following animal as a purpose -seeking one. And he is successful not because he knows why he ought to observe the rules vhich he does observe, or is even capable of stating all these rules in vords, but because his thinking and acting are governed by rules which have by a process of selection been evolved in the society in which he lives, and vhich are thus the product of the experience of generations. The permanent limitations of our factual knowledge The constructivist approach leads to false conclusions because mans actions are largely successful, not merely in the primitive stage but perhaps even more so in civilization, because they are adapted both II R EASON AND EVOLUTION to the particular facts which he knows and to a great many other facts he does not and cannot know. And this adaptation to the general circumstances that surround him is brought about by his observance of rules which he has not designed and often does not even knovv explicitly, although he is able to honour them in action.Or, to put this differently, our adaptation to our environment does not consist only, and perhaps not even chiefly, in an insight into the relations between cause and effect, but also in our actions being governed by rules adapted to the kind of world in which we live, that is, to circumstances which we are not aware of and which yet determine the pattern of our successful actions. Complete rationality of action in the Cartesian sense demands complete knowledge of all the relevant facts. A designer or engineer needs all the data and full power to control or manipulate them if he is to organize the material objects to produce the intended result. But the success of action in society depends on more particular facts than anyone can possibly know. And our whole civilization in consequence rests, and must rest, on our believing rnuch that we cannot know to be true in the Cartesian sense. What we must ask the reader to keep constantly in mind throughout this book, hen, is the fact of the necessary and irremediable ignorance on everyones part of most of the particular facts which determine the actions of all the several members of human society. This may at first seem to be a fact so obvious and incontestable as hardly to deserve mention, and still less to require proof. Yet the result of not constantly stressing it is that it is only too readily forgotten. This is so mainly because it is a very inconvenient fact which makes both our attempts to explain and our attempts to influence intelligently the processes of society very much more difficult, and which places severe limits on what we can say or do about them. There exists therefore a great temptation, as a first approximation, to begin with the assumption that we know everything needed for full explanation or control.This provisional assumption is often treated as something of little consequence which can later be dropped without much effect on the conclusions. Yet this necessary ignorance of most of the particulars which ente r the order of a Great Society is the source of the central problem of all social order and the false assumption by which it is provisionally put aside is mostly never explicitly abandoned but merely conveniently forgotten. The argument then proceeds as if that ignorance did not matter. 12 R EASON AND EVOLUTION The fact of our irrcrnediable ignorance of most of the particular facts which determine the processes of society is, however, the reason why most social institutions have taken the form they actually have.To talk about a society about vvhich either the observer or any of its members knows all the particular facts is to talk about something wholly different from anything vhich has ever existcda society in which lnost of vhat ve find in our society vould not and could not exist and vhich, if it ever occurred, vould possess properties ve cannot even imagine. I have discussed the importance of our necessary ignorance of the concrete facts at some length in an earlier book 8 and w ill emphasize its central importance here mainly by stating it at the head of the vhole exposition. But there are several points vhich require re-statement or elaboration. In he first instance, the incurable ignorance of everyone which I am speaking is the ignorance of particular facts which are or will become knovn to somebody and thereby affect the vhole structure of society. rrhis structure of human activities constantly adapts itself, and functions through adapting itself, to millions of facts which in their entirety are not known to anybody. The significance of this process is most obvious and Tas at first stressed in the economic field. As it has been said, the economic life of a non -socialist society consists of millions of relations or flows between individual firms and households. Ve can establish certain theorems about them, but vve can never observe all. 9 The insight into the significance of our institutional ignorance in the economic sphere, and into the methods by vhi ch ve have learnt to overcome this obstacle, vas in fact the first point 10 for those ideas which in the present book arc systelnatically applied to a much wider field. It will be one of our chief contentions that most of the rules of conduct vhich govern our actions, and lnost of the institutions which arise out of this regularity, are adaptations to the impossibility of anyone taking conscious account of all the particular facts which enter into the order of society. vVe shall see, in particular, that the possibility of justice rests on this necessary limitation of our factual knowledge, and that insight into the nature of justice is therefore denied to all those constructivists ho habitually argue on the assulnption of omniscience.Another consequence of this basic fact vhich must be stressed here is that only in the small groups of primitive society can collaboration betveen the members rest largely on the circumstance that at anyone moment they will know more or less the same particular 13 R EASON AND EVOLUTION circulnstances. SOl1le wise men 111ay be better at interpreting the instantly perceived circumstances or at remembering things in rClnote places unkndvvn to the others. But the concrete events vhich the individuals encounter in their daily pursuits will be very much the same for all, and they will act together because the events they know and the objectives at which they aim are more or less the same.The situation is wholly different in the Great 11 or Open Society where millions of men interact and where civilization as we know it has developed. Econon1ics has long stressed the division of labour which such a situation involves. But it has laid much less stress on the fragmentation of knowledge, on the fact that each Inember of society can have only a small fraction of the knowledge possessed by all, and that each is therefore ignorant of most of the facts on which the working of society rests. Yet it is the utilization of much more knowledge th an anyone can possess, and therefore the fact that each moves within a coherent structure most of whose deterlninants are unknown to him, that constitutes the distinctive feature of all advanced civilizations.In civilized society it is indeed not so much the greater knowledge that the individual can acquire, as the greater benefit he receives from the knovledge possessed by others, which is the cause of his ability to pursue an infinitely wider range of ends than merely the satisfaction of his most pressing physical needs. Indeed, a civilized individual may be very ignorant, more ignorant than many a savage, and yet greatly benefit from the civilization